III. [POPULAR STORIES AND ARTICLES]

1. HISTORY]

BALAKIREV

There was a Russian Tsar Peter. He had a jester Balakirev. Once Tsar Peter was angry with the jester and ordered to drive him away. King Peter said: Tell him not to dare to stay on my land. Balakirev did not show himself for a long time, and Peter thought that he had gone to other lands. Once, Tsar Peter is sitting at the window and sees Balakirev riding a cart along the street. Pyotr got angry and ordered Balakirev to be stopped and brought to the window. Peter said: How dare you disobey me. I didn't tell you to stay on my land. And Balakirev said: Do not be angry, king. I'm not on your soil, but on Swedish soil. I brought this land from Sweden. And Balakirev testified that he had earth in his cart. The king laughed and forgave him.

<Царь Петр I был росту в три аршина без двух вершков и был так силен, что он ломал руками подковы и сгибал рубли серебряные. Петр I всему сам учился и всякую работу сам умел делать. Он умел топором работать и рубить дома и корабли. Он умел железо ковать и делать винты и подковы. Он шил сапоги и кафтаны. Он умел на меди и на кости вырезывать фигуры, умел точить из кости и дерева и умел говорить и читать по-латыни, по-шведски, по-голландски, по-немецки, по-французски, по-английски.>

<Иван Андреевич Крылов сидел один раз за обедом против молодого человека, который много лгал. Молодой человек стал рассказывать, какая большая у него в пруду есть рыба. Он сказал: Прошлого года я поймал судака такого длинного, как от меня до Ивана Андреевича. Тогда Иван Андреевич отодвинулся и сказал: Может быть, я вам мешаю; может быть, рыба еще больше. Все засмеялись, и молодой человек перестал рассказывать. —>

DEATH OF OLEG

There was a Russian prince Oleg. He called the Magi to him and asked them: What kind of life will he have and what kind of death? The Magi said: Your life will be happy, and your death will be from your beloved horse. Oleg thought: If I die from my beloved horse, then I will send it away and I will never ride it.

And Oleg ordered to take the horse to a distant village. Once Oleg came to that village. Time has already passed a lot. Oleg asked: Where is my horse that I sent here, is it alive? And they say to him: Your horse has long since died. And Oleg felt sorry for the horse. And he says: In vain I ruined the horse. Show it to me. And they say to him: He died a long time ago, his wolves ate him, only bones remained. Oleg ordered to lead himself to the place where they threw the horse. And there were only bones lying around and a horse's head. Oleg thought: How can death come to me from this now? And he kicked the horse's head. And there was a snake in my head. She crawled out, hissed and stung Oleg in the leg. Oleg died from this.

HOW THE RUSSIAN BOGATYR FIGHTED

Under Prince Vladimir, the Pechenegs attacked Russia. They approached Kyiv with a large army. Prince Vladimir went out with his army to meet them. They met on the Trubezh River and stopped. The prince of the Pechenegs drove up to the river, called Prince Vladimir and said: Why do we need to kill a lot of people. And let's do this: you release your strongman, and I will release mine, and let them fight. If yours is stronger than mine, then I will leave, and if mine prevails, then submit with all your land. Prince Vladimir returned to his army and said: Is there such a strong man in our army that he undertakes to fight the Pechenegs. One old man said: I came here with my four sons, and the fifth, younger son, Ivan, stayed at home. Tell them to send for him. God gave him great strength. Vladimir said: What is his strength? The old man said: His strength is this: he once crumpled an oxhide. It didn’t seem to me how he does it, so I scold him. He gets angry and tear the skin in half. Prince Vladimir sent for Ivan. When they brought him, Prince Vladimir said to him: Can you fight the Pechenegs? Ivan said: I do not know my strength. Must be tested. Prince Vladimir ordered to bring a big bull and said: Well, show your strength over him. Ivan ordered to tease the bull, and when the bull ran into him, he grabbed him by the side with his hand, pulled out a piece of skin with meat, and then hit him between the horn with his fist and killed him. Vladimir sent word to the Pecheneg prince to send his strong man. The next day both armies met. In the middle they made a clean place. Ivan came out from the Russians. He was small in stature and white in face. A black giant emerged from the Pechenegs. When the Pecheneg saw Ivan, he said: Why did they bring a small one, I will crush him. When the strong men came to the middle, to a clear place, they grabbed their sashes, strengthened their legs and began to squeeze and toss each other. The Pecheneg strongman wanted to lift Ivan and throw him over him, but Ivan squeezed the Pecheneg so tightly that he could not breathe and groaned. Then Ivan lifted him up, slammed him on the ground and smashed him to death. The Pechenegs got scared and ran, and the Russians beat them.

HOW THE MAN SAVE THE Tsar

When, after Tsar Ivan the Terrible, the Russian legitimate tsars were transferred and various tsars were chosen, and killed, and driven away, then the Poles wanted to plant their prince's son as the Russian tsar, and they wanted to exterminate the real chosen Russian tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. - Mikhail Fedorovich was still living in his Kostroma village and did not know that he had been elected tsar. And the Poles already knew about it and went to this village to kill him. A little before reaching the village, the Poles met an old man and began to ask him: How can they get to Tsarskoe Selo. The old man noticed that the Poles did not go to the royal village for good, and decided to take them away from the king. He told them: we must go through Domnino, I myself am from Domnino, I’m going home, perhaps I’ll accompany you. The Poles followed the peasant, and he brought them to Domnino to his hut. Here he fed them and gave them wine to drink. And he himself sent his son to the king to say that the Poles were coming to harass him. When it was evening, the Poles began to get ready to go to Tsarskoye Selo and asked the old man to see him off, because it was winter and it was snowing. The old man said: Why not. He put on a caftan on a fur coat and led the Poles away from the royal village, led them into the forest, into the tussock and wanted to leave, but the Poles caught him and began torturing him. The old man was silent. Then the Poles guessed that he had deceived them, and began to persuade him to take them out, and if he did not, they threatened him that they would cut off his head. Then the old man said to them: I know that I am a precipice, but I am not afraid of this, and you will not have to kill<царя>because you won't get out of here on your own. Then the Poles killed the old man. And they went to wander through the forest, and in one night they all froze. This old man's name was Ivan Susanin.

7 GREEK SAGES

The Greeks considered 7 wise men: Thales, Solon, Pittacus, Bion, Cleobulus, Periander and Chilo. These wise men had a lot of intelligence and learning, and they taught the people many sciences and wisdom; but they were considered wise men not because they knew a lot, but for this:

Near the city of Miletus, fishermen were fishing. A rich man came up and bought a tonya from the fishermen. - They sold - they took the money, and promised to give everything that falls into this ton. They threw down the net and pulled out a golden tripod instead of a fish. The rich man wanted to take the tripod, but the fishermen did not give him. They said they sold fish, not gold. They began to argue and sent to ask the oracle who should give the tripod. The Pythia said: we must give the tripod to the wisest of the Greeks. Then all the inhabitants of Miletus said that they should give Thales. They sent a tripod to Thales. But Thales said: I am not wiser than everyone. There are many people wiser than me. And did not take a tripod. Then they sent to Solon, and he said the same thing, and sent to a third, and the third refused. And there were 7 of them. All of them did not consider themselves wise. That is why they were called the 7 Greek sages.

<КАК МЫ УЕЗЖАЛИ ИЗ МОСКВЫ

Once, Cossacks galloped past our house. My father went out to them and asked them where they were jumping. They said that the French were following them and that all the people were leaving the city. Then my father ordered two carts to be banned, and we all went. Carriages, carriages, carts rode along the road, and many people walked on foot. Matushka kept crying, and the father told her: don’t cry, she will grind, and there will be flour. My brother and I didn't understand anything yet, and we had fun. In the evening we stopped to spend the night at an inn. And when it got dark, all the people went out into the street to watch how the French set fire to Moscow. Batiushka then said: The mouse's tears will repay the cat. And so it happened. When we again arrived in Moscow, not a single Frenchman was left. They were all killed. And Moscow was built better than before.>

2. [GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOGRAPHY]

<ВЕНЕЦИЯ

In Italy there is such a city on the seashore. They call it Venice. There is water on every street in this city. And they ride in this city not on horses, but on boats. Porches in this city are made above the water itself. As you leave the house, so now the water. If someone wants to go somewhere, he calls a cab. And the cabman comes by boat. The houses in this city are large - 4 and 5 floors. These houses were built by merchants. They traded at sea and became rich as a result.>

<КАЗБЕК

There is a land of the Caucasus in Russia. There are such high mountains in this land that the clouds move below these mountains. When you enter half of this mountain and look down at the road, the people on the road seem as small as dolls. “There is always snow on these mountains, and this snow never melts. Of these mountains, Mount Kazbek is the highest. No one has ever been to the very top of this mountain. Because it is very difficult to get in there. It's slippery and cold and hard to breathe. There is a monastery on half of this mountain. Now no one lives in this monastery, but monks used to live.>

When I was in the Caucasus, I went to a high mountain. This mountain is called Kazbek. When I reached half of the mountain, it became foggy, and I could not see anything. Then, when I ascended even higher, the sky became clear - and there were clouds below. This mountain is so high that when I was in the fog, I was in the cloud itself, and then, when the fog was below me, I was above the clouds, and it was clear on the mountain, and it was raining below.

<НЕГРЫ

There are lands in Africa where there is never winter. In these lands there is never snow, the water never freezes and it never rains. - In these lands it is so dry and hot that nothing grows: no grass, no trees. And everywhere there is only sand. You can live there only near the rivers. Near the rivers there is grass and trees. And these trees are green all year round. Black people live in these lands. They are called blacks. These people always go naked and live without houses in huts. They make huts from branches and leaves. They eat fruit from the trees and the raw flesh of beasts.>

BURAN

The blizzard is stronger where there are no mountains and forests. There are places in Russia where for 500 miles around there is not a single forest and not a single hill; and everywhere flat and bare steppe. In these places, blizzards - there they call them snowstorms - are so strong that they carry not only people, but entire herds of cattle. Kalmyks, Nogais, Kirghiz and Bashkirs live in these places. These peoples speak their own special language and believe in their own special faith, but they live in Russia and submit to the Russian Tsar. These peoples do not live, like the Russians, in the same places, and do not build houses for themselves, and do not plow the land, but move from place to place and live in booths and feed themselves not on bread, but on milk and meat.

They have a lot of all sorts of cattle: both rams, and horned, and horses,<и всё, что им нужно: и платье, и дома, и пищу они делают из шкур, из шерсти, из молока и мяса.>A wealthy Kirghiz has one thousand seven horses, two thousand cows and twenty thousand rams. When the snow melts and it becomes warm, these peoples begin the most cheerful life. They harness wagons, put all their belongings and folding houses of lattice and felt on the wagons, put their wives, old women and children on them, drive their flocks and go to the best meadows to some river. So they set up their booths side by side and begin to live. Men graze cattle and beat rams and horses for food, women milk cows and mares and make cheese and koumiss, cook food and sew dresses and walk around the whole summer.

3. [ZOOLOGY]

<Поводильщик выучил медведя отказываться головой от вина, которое ему подносили. И когда медведь, охочий до вина, мотал головой, народ спрашивал, что он этим говорит. Поводильщик говорил: Мне не надо того, что тебе назначено. Когда однажды на поводильщика, ночевавшего близко от леса, напал медведь и стал драть, поводильщик закричал мужику: Спусти моего медведя; авось, этот меня пустит и на ручного бросится. Когда же ученый медведь не подходил к нему, задираемый поводильщик опять закричал: Что ты не спускаешь Мишку, что он там делает? Мужик отвечал: Он говорит: Что ему не надо, и что он отдает тебе всё, что ему назначено. —>

The owner of the tavern brought vodka to the driver, goat and bear. The goat gave his glass to the owner. The bear turned away from the vodka and pointed at its owner with its paw. The owner, surprised that the bear,<всегда охочий до водки,>refused it, and asked the leader what the bear wanted to say. - And he says: I do not need the master's. - That same evening, the driver got into a fight with the peasants. “Let the bear off the chain,” the leader shouted to his comrade, when he was knocked down and overpowered. But the comrade - the goat - answered from the yard: The bear is not coming, but he says that I do not need the master's.

HOW THE BEAR WAS CAUGHT

There are many bears in the Nizhny Novgorod province. The men catch little bear cubs, feed them and teach them to dance. Then they take bears to show. One leads him, and the other dresses up as a goat, dances and beats the drum. One man brought a bear to the fair. His nephew walked with him with a goat and a drum. There were many people at the fairground, and everyone looked at the bear and gave the peasant money. In the evening, the peasant brought his bear to the tavern. And made him dance. The peasant was given more money and wine. He drank the wine and gave it to his friend to drink. And he gave the bear a whole glass of wine to drink. When night came, the peasant with his nephew and the bear went to spend the night in the field, because everyone was afraid to let the bear into their yard. A man with his nephew and a bear went outside the village and lay down to sleep under a tree. The man tied the bear's chain to his belt and lay down. He was a little drunk and soon fell asleep. His nephew also fell asleep. And they slept so soundly that they never woke up until morning. In the morning the peasant woke up and saw that the bear was not near him. He woke his nephew and ran with him to look for the bear. The grass was tall. And the bear's footprint was visible on the grass. He went through the field into the woods. The men ran after him. The forest was dense, so it was difficult to go through it. The nephew said: Uncle, we won't find the bear. And we will find, we will not catch him. Let's go back. But the man did not agree. He said: The bear fed us, and if we do not find him, we will go around the world. I will not go back, but with the last of my strength I will look for him. They went on and in the evening came to a clearing. It began to get dark. The men were tired and sat down to rest. Suddenly they heard something rattling a chain close to them. The man jumped up and slowly said: This is it. You have to sneak up and catch him. He went to the side where the chain rattled and saw a bear. The bear pulled the chain with its paws and wanted to throw off the binding. When he saw the peasant, he roared terribly and bared his teeth. The nephew was frightened and wanted to run; but the man grabbed his hand,<с ним вместе пошли к медведю. —

The bear growled even louder and ran into the forest. The man saw that he would not catch him. Then he ordered his nephew to put on a goat, and dance, and beat the drum, and he himself began to shout at the bear in such a voice as he shouted when he showed him. The bear suddenly stopped in the bushes, listened to the voice of the owner, got up on its hind legs and began to spin. The man came closer to him and kept shouting. And the nephew kept dancing and beating the drum. When the peasant had already come close to the bear, he suddenly rushed to him and grabbed him by the chain. Then the bear growled and rushed to run, but the peasant did not let him go and again began to lead him and show him.>

JAKOV'S DOG

One guard had a wife and two children:<мальчик и девочка. Мальчику было семь лет, а девочке было пять лет. У них была лохматая собака с белой мордой и большими глазами.>

Once the guard went into the forest and told his wife not to let the children out of the house, because the wolves walked around the house all night and attacked the dog. The wife said: children, do not go to the forest, but she herself sat down to work.

When the mother sat down to work, the boy said to his sister: let's go to the forest, yesterday I saw an apple tree, and apples ripened on it.

The girl said: let's go, and they ran into the forest. When the mother finished working, she called the children, but they were not there. She went out onto the porch and began to call them. There were no children. The husband came home and asked: where are the children? The wife said she didn't know.

Then the sentry<рассердился на жену и>ran to look for the children.

Suddenly he heard a dog screeching. He ran there and saw that the children were sitting under a bush and crying, and the wolf grappled with the dog and gnawed it. The guard grabbed an ax and killed the wolf. Then he took the children in his arms and ran home with them.

When they got home, the mother locked the door and they sat down to dinner. Suddenly they heard a dog squealing at the door. They went out into the yard and wanted to let the dog into the house, but the dog was covered in blood and could not walk. The children brought her water and bread. But she did not want to drink or eat, and only licked their hands. Then she lay down on her side and stopped screaming. The children thought the dog had fallen asleep; and she died. —

Swans flew in herds from the cold side to the warm lands. They flew across the sea. They flew day and night; and another day and another night they flew over the water without rest. There was a full moon in the sky, and far below the swans saw blue water. All the swans got tired, flapping their wings, but they did not stop and flew on. Old, strong swans flew in front, those that were younger and weaker flew behind. One young swan flew behind everyone. His strength has weakened. He flapped his wings and could not fly further. Then he spread his wings and went down. He descended closer and closer to the water; and his comrades further and further whitened in the moonlight. The swan descended into the water and folded its wings. The sea stirred under him and rocked him. A flock of swans was barely visible as a white line in the bright sky. And it was barely audible in the silence how their wings rang. When they were completely out of sight, the swan bent his neck back and closed his eyes. He did not move, and only the sea, rising and falling in a wide strip, raised and lowered him. Before dawn, a light breeze began to stir the sea. And the water splashed into the white chest of the swan. The swan opened his eyes. In the east the dawn was reddening, and the moon and the stars grew paler. The swan sighed, stretched out its neck and, flapping its wings, got up and flew, catching its “wings” on the water. He climbed higher and higher and flew alone over the dark rippling waves.

<Летним днем рой пчел с маткой в середине вылетел из улья. На полете молодая матка зацепилась за высокий цветок и не в силах подняться — на нем повисла. Увидав ее, ласточка спустилась к ней. Ты не должна прикасаться ко мне, сказала пчелиная матка: погляди на короткость моих крыльев и длину моего тела: я царица пчелам, и пчелы готовы все умереть за меня. Царица быстрых на полете пчел должна летать быстрее их, а ты не можешь поднять с цветка свое тяжелое тело, сказала ласточка: ты обманщица; пчелы ничего не дадут за тебя, и проглотила матку.>

<В жаркий летний день рой пчел вылетел с молодой маткой из улья. Пчелы вились и играли над пчельником и лесом. Пчелы жужжали, трутни трубели. Матка была в середине, и все пчелы окружали ее и летали туда, куда летела матка. К вечеру пчелы возвратились домой, но матка ослабела и от непривычки летать и оттого, что у нее крылья короче, а тело длиннее, чем у других пчел, не попала в улей, а упала в траву. Пчелы не заметили этого и влетели в улей. Но когда они увидали, что нет матки, они стали бегать по стенкам и вощинам, отыскивая свою царицу, но не могли уж вылететь из улья, потому что было поздно. Матка между тем одна ползала по земле, взбиралась на травы, подгибавшиеся под ее тяжестью и, взмахнув крыльями, опять спускалась на землю, опять влезала, и путалась, и блуждала между травой. Становилось всё темнее и темнее. Лягушки прыгали по траве, и матка, спасаясь от них, взобралась на цветок кашки, но с кашки упала и запуталась в высоком пырье. Вдруг большая птица увидала матку, подлетела к ней, взяла осторожно клювом, выпутала из травы и с нею взлетела на плетень. Матка видела с плетня свой улей и видела, как ее пчелы бегали наружу по улью и слышала, как они жалобно трубели, отыскивая ее, и она сказала птице: Я благодарю тебя за то, что ты вынула меня из травы, но ты летишь не туда, куда надо — дом мой в этом улье. Птица сказала: Ты напрасно благодаришь меня, я вынула тебя из травы не затем, чтобы снести в улей, а затем, чтобы отдать своим детям на съеденье. Разве ты не видишь, сказала матка, что я не простая пчела, а что я царица, разве ты не видишь, что я больше всех пчел. Отнеси меня в улей, а то пчелы пропадут без меня. Я давно знаю, что ты матка, сказала птица, и мне всё равно, что будет с твоими пчелами, а мне давно хотелось угостить моих детей толстой маткой. И птица разорвала матку на двое и отдала своим детям.>

<НЬЮФАУНДЛЕНДСКИЕ СОБАКИ

Newfoundland dogs are very large in stature. Their fur is black and long, and on their paws they have membranes between their toes, like ducks. These dogs are very strong and swim so well that they can pull a big man out of the water. One master hunter bought himself such a dog. Once he went hunting. He had to cross a small stream. The bridge was far away. He went straight through the water. He thought the water would not be deeper than knee-deep. The Newfoundland dog did not follow him. And she sat down on the shore, raised her ears and began to look at him. The master had just reached half of the river through the water, when suddenly the dog jumped up and rushed into the water. She ran up to the master, grabbed him by the dress and dragged him back. The master wanted to drive her away, but the dog growled and pretended that she would bite him if he did not go with her. Barin went back to the shore. On the shore the dog began to caress again. The master again went into the river. But again, as soon as he reached half the water, the dog rushed and dragged him back. The master got angry and tied the dog to a tree. When he went back into the water, the dog began to gnaw on the rope by which he was tied. But the master thought: I'll cross the water before she gnaws off the rope. When he began to approach another

OSTRICH

There are such big birds in America that people ride them. These birds run so fast that it is difficult to overtake them on a horse. These birds are called ostrich. They are caught on horseback. They follow them until they get tired. When they get tired of running, these birds run up to the bush and hide their heads in it. When they hide their heads, they can't see anything. And they think they can't see them either.

ABOUT ANTS

Once I went to the pantry to get some jam. I took the jar and saw that the whole jar was full of ants. Ants crawled in the middle, and on top of the jar, and in the jam itself. I took out all the ants with a spoon, swept around from the jar and put the jar on the top shelf. The next day, when I came to the pantry, I saw that the ants crawled from the floor to the top shelf and again crawled into the jam. I took the jar, cleaned it again, tied it with a rope and hung it on a carnation from the ceiling. When I left the pantry, I looked again at the jar and saw that only one ant remained on it, it soon ran around the bank. I stopped to see what he would do. The ant ran across the glass, then ran along the rope with which the jar was tied, then ran onto the rope with which the jar was tied. He ran up to the ceiling, from the ceiling he ran down the wall and onto the floor, where there were a lot of ants. It is true that this ant told the others which way he came from the jar, because immediately many ants went one after another along the wall to the ceiling and along the rope into the jar, along the same road that the ant came from. I removed the jar and put it in another place.

<Один раз сто овец шли домой с поля. Впереди всех шла черная молодая овца, а сзади шла старая белая овца. Вдруг сзади овец заржала лошадь. Старая задняя овца побежала и закричала: Бегите скорее, что-то страшное закричало. И задние овцы побежали. Черная овца слышала, что это заржала лошадь, и не испугалась. Но другие овцы бежали за ней и кричали: волк, медведь, лев, бегите скорее... Черная овца подумала, что, может быть, она не расслышала и что сзади был волк. И она побежала. Когда она побежала, ей показалось, что она, точно, слышит вой волка. Она побежала еще скорее, и тогда ей показалось, что она слышит, как волк скачет сзади. Она побежала еще скорее, и тогда ей показалось, что стадо волков бежит за ней. Она поскакала что было силы. Овцы скакали по выгону. На выгоне лежали полотна. Черная овца увидала эти полотна. Она не знала, что это такое, но ей стало страшно, и она прыгнула через полотно. Она сказала: Прыгайте, овцы. И все овцы стали прыгать через полотно. И овцы прыгали и кричали: Овраг, пропасть, пожар, прыгайте, выше прыгайте. Мы пропали. И овцы все прыгали и попадали одна на другую, и две переломили ноги. Когда овец пригнали домой, они долго кричали разными голосами и не могли перевести духа. А овцы с переломанными ногами плакали. Когда овцы отдохнули, они стали говорить между собой. Черная овца сказала: Мне кажется, что сзади заржала лошадь, когда вы все побежали, а волка не было. Тогда другая овца сказала: Нет, это не была лошадь, а все сказали, что это был волк. А 3-я сказала: Нет это был медведь. А 4 сказала: Нет, это был лев. А самая задняя сказала: Я сама видела, что это были два льва, 4 медведя и 10 волков. Она сказала, что она сама это видела, но она ничего не видала. Ей только стыдно было признаться, что она ничего не видала и напрасно всех перепугала. Когда все поверили ей и благодарили за то, что она спасла их от такой беды, тогда эта старая овца сказала: львов, медведей и волков я сама видела и мне кажется, что пропасти и пожара совсем не было там, где мы все прыгали и ломали ноги. Э[то] п[олотно] лежало. Я видела, как заворотился конец полотна. Тогда другая овца сказала: что она видела овраг. 2-я сказала, что она видела пропасть. 3-я сказала, что она видела пожар, а черная овца сказала, что она сама видела, что на дороге была пропасть и в пропасти горел страшный огонь, что если бы она 1-я не сказала им этого, они все бы погибли. А она тоже знала, что это было полотно, но ей стыдно было признаться, и все поверили ей, что был пожар.>

<НА ЧТО НУЖНЫ МЫШИ

I had a young garden. In the spring, I went to look at my apple trees and saw that mice all around ate their roots, so that around each apple tree the bark was eaten like a white ring. The apple trees were good and fresh. All had color buds. All of them would bloom and give fruit, but now I knew that they would perish, because the juice in the trees runs through the bark, as blood runs through the veins in a person. It was a living pity for me to look at my apple trees, and I went home and told my grandfather my grief, and how I would beat all the mice in the world if I had strength. And grandfather said to me: If your strength was to beat mice, you know who would come to ask you for them. I said: There is no one to ask for them, nobody needs them. And the grandfather said: The cats would come first and would ask for mice. They would say: If you burn the mice, we will have nothing to eat. Then the foxes would come and ask too. They [would] say: without mice, we would have to steal hens and chickens. After the foxes, black grouse and partridges would come and also ask you not to kill mice. I was surprised: why partridges and black grouse need mice, but my grandfather said: They need mice more than anything in the world. They do not eat them, but if you kill the mice, the foxes will have nothing to eat, they will destroy the partridge and grouse nests. We all need each other in the world. —>

4. [BOTANY]

TREES BREATHE

The child was sick. He struggled, tossed about, then calmed down. The mother thought he was asleep; I looked and he wasn't breathing. She began to cry, called her grandmother and said: “Look, my baby has died.” Grandmother says: “wait to cry, maybe he just froze, and not died. Here, let's put a piece of glass to the mouth, if it sweats, then it breathes and is alive.

They put a glass to the mouth. The glass was sweaty. The child was alive. He woke up and recovered.

There was a thaw during Great Lent, but it did not drive away all the snow, and again it froze, and there was fog.

Early in the morning I went along the crust to the garden. I look - all the apple trees are variegated, some knots are black, while others are exactly sprinkled with white stars. I came closer - I looked at the black knots - they were all dry, I looked at the motley ones - they were all alive and all were covered with frost on the kidneys. There is no hoarfrost anywhere, only on the very tips of the kidneys, on the mouths where they began to open, just like the mustaches and beards of muzhiks turn in the cold. Dead trees do not breathe, but living trees breathe, just like people. We are mouths and noses, they are kidneys.

<МОМУТОВОЕ ДЕРЕВО

The largest tree in the world is the momoty tree in America. - It has been growing for 2000 years and is higher than the highest bell tower. Our largest trees: birches, oaks, pines and firs, are 30 arshins high, and this tree is five times even higher. And this tree is so thick in thickness that 30 people, holding hand in hand, will not clasp it.>

Tea is made from the leaves. The leaves are harvested from the tree and dried in pans. When the leaves dry, they are placed in boxes and taken to sell. The tea tree grows only in the warmest lands. It grows in China and Japan. The tea tree is not high, so that a person can reach the top of his hand with his hand. It is propagated by seeds. Tea tree seeds are like a box with three compartments. And in each compartment lies a nut in a shell. This nut is the seed. If you plant it, a tree will grow. —

CORK

Corks are made from tree bark. In Italy, in Spain, in France and in other places there are trees that look like oak. These trees are not as tall as the oak. These trees are always green. And when they grow big, a thick bark is made on them. This bark is removed and a cork is made from it. When the bark is removed from the tree, the bark grows back in that place. And they take it off again. When they get a lot of traffic jams,<ее>they put it in water, and then unbend it and make planks out of it. Then they make corks out of it. Water cannot pass through the cork. And the cork is so light on the water that if you make a belt out of the cork and put it on a person, this person cannot drown.

5. [PHYSIOLOGY]

WHY CAN YOU SEE IN THE DARK?

Enter from the yard into the dark barn. I can not see anything. Stay a little, you will begin to distinguish the pillars, the roof. And look around, and you can see everything. Why does this happen?

There is a pupil in the eye. If you look closely into the pupil, you will see yourself, as in a small mirror. The pupil is not continuous, but this is a ring, and in the ring there is an empty place, and behind the empty place is a mirror. The ring is compressed and distributed. When it is very light from the sun or fire, we can clearly see, and we squeeze the ring and cover the mirror. But when there is little light, we stretch the ring to pick up more light in the mirror.

When you enter a dark place from the sun, the ring is compressed, and we begin to stretch it. When we stretch more, we will see more.

And when you come out of a dark place into the light, why does it hurt your eyes? Because in a dark place we stretched the eye ring, but suddenly we cannot pull it off. While it shrinks, we close our eyes for centuries, otherwise too much light enters the stretched ring, and it hurts our eyes.

When it's quiet around and you're listening, knock something or scream, it will hurt your ears. Why is this? Each ear has a membrane, and this membrane is stretched over the cartilages, like a drum. When you want to hear the sound better, you stretch the cartilage, and the membrane becomes tighter. And when they make too much noise, then you squeeze the cartilage, and the membrane will weaken. “When it’s quiet around and you listen, you’ll stretch your eardrum. Hit something hard and your ears will hurt.

SMELL

Why do things smell? Because they crumble into the smallest crumbs - such small crumbs that they cannot be seen with the eyes, and these crumbs scatter through the air; and as we breathe, we draw them into our nose, and these crumbs fall on our nasal membrane.

<Чем крепче вещь, тем она меньше пахнет. Всякий металл, камень и дерево, покуда они холодны и сухи и не растерты в порошок — ничем не пахнут. А почти всё согретое или мокрое или очень мелко растертое — пахнет. Жидкое всё почти пахнет. А еще сильнее пахнут почти все газы.>

The smelly thing is reduced. The stronger it smells, the more it reduces what smells in it. If you destroy the grass, it will give a strong spirit, then it will smell less and less and completely stop. And if you hang odorous hay, and also, when it ceases to smell, you will see that odorous hay was heavier than odorless hay. Everything that was missing in weight came out as a smell - such small particles that they cannot be seen with the eyes, but only heard with the nose. The same happens with manure. When it stops smelling, it will lose weight. The same thing happens with vodka if you keep it uncorked. It's the same with all kinds of spirits.

All living things - plants and animals - smell strongly. But plants and animals do not decrease in weight because they smell, because as much as the smell comes out of a living plant or animal, so much food will it take into itself again. An animal by eating, drinking, breathing; and the plant with leaves from the air and roots from the earth.

How small are the particles that smell?

A man is 400,000 times bigger than a flea, and he sees the flea and feels it with his hands. The flea also has eyes 100,000 times smaller than human eyes. A flea with its own eyes must see substances 400,000 times smaller than its own. Such and such particles, and perhaps even less, those that enter our noses when we smell something.

6. [ASTRONOMY]

ASTRONOMY

The calendar says ahead, when the days and nights will be equal, it also says ahead, when, what day and at what hour the month will be born. It is also said in calendars when, what day and at what hour the moon or the sun will be eclipsed.<Затмения солнца и луны бывают каждый год не меньше трех, только не всегда затмения эти видны от нас. Иногда видно в Петербурге, а на Кавказе не видно>. The calendars also say in advance when, at what hour, a star with a tail will enter the sky.<И звезды эти с хвостами каждый год бывают на небе, только мы не всегда их примечаем.>- And everything always comes true, as predicted in the calendar.

An eclipse of the moon and an eclipse of the sun were predicted in 1871, and exactly as predicted, on that very day and hour in the middle of the night, a black spot found on the full moon, closed and then opened the moon, and in the middle of the day a black spot found on the sun, closed the sun opened up again.<Узнают всё это вперед астрономы. У них есть построены башни, на башнях длинные зрительные трубы, и в эти трубы звезды днем видно. И они смотрят звезды, месяц, солнце, меряют расстояние между звездами, на бумагу срисовывают звезды и высчитывают, сколько времени какая звезда идет от места до места, и узнают, где, в какое время солнцу, месяцу и звезде надо быть. За тысячи лет до нас астрономы рассматривали звезды, солнце и месяц и замечали, как и куда они ходят, и записывали, и рисовали на бумаге и рассчитывали, когда какая звезда должна прийти. И теперь тоже делают и кое-что знают и вперед угадывают. — Но прежде те, кто знали об звездах, никому не показывали своих расчетов и удивляли народ тем, что вперед угадывали, что будет, а теперь всякий, у кого есть охота к этому делу, может сам дойти до того, что предсказывают в календарях.>

If anyone will<летом>in the night to get up every day before dawn and notice where the sun rises, then he will notice that the sun does not rise in the same place where it rose yesterday, but in a different, slightly to the left, and rises not at the same time as yesterday, but every day early. If he looks every day from one place and notes something, a tree or a hillock, against which the sun rises, and so he notes a year or two, then he will guess in advance where on what day the sun will rise. If he also notices in the evenings behind the moon where the month rises and at what time, then he will guess in advance where the month will rise. If he notes by the stars against which star at what hour the month will be, then he will also predict. And for a person who has never noticed this, it will be as surprising as how calendars guess when a star will be and when an eclipse will occur. Here one person noticed a year and two, and there thousands of people noticed for thousands of years. —<Тот, кто имеет охоту к этому делу, тот может узнать, как дошли люди до этого. Только это дело трудное и много надо учиться, прочесть книг и самому примечать и уметь считать.

Some say that the earth stands on three fish, while others say that it is round, like a ball, and does not stand on anything. It's all the same, no one saw either three fish, or the whole earth, or that it was spinning. And it is dear how people have come to the point where they know in advance what is done with the sun, the moon and the stars.>

STARS

<Прежде чем примечать за солнцем и месяцем, надо узнать звезды, как они всходят и заходят, и как они расставлены. Звезд всех очень много, если смотреть на них в увеличительные трубы; но если смотреть на звезды простым глазом, то их совсем не так много, как кажется. Всех звезд с одного места видно не более 2000; а из этих 2000 больших звезд не больше 40, средних около 100, а остальные маленькие. Большие звезды приметны, и все их знают. Высожары. Медведица. Крест. Все звезды, и большие и маленькие, всходят с востока и заходят на западе. Иные в ночь и поднимутся и зайдут ночью, а иные стоят уже наверху на небе, когда смеркнется и станут видны звезды, но все-таки и эти идут с востока на запад, а иные только перед зарей начинают подниматься и идут на запад, но как солнце взойдет, они потухнут, и простым глазом не видать, как они заходят; но в зрительные трубы видны звезды и днем, и видно, как они все выходят с востока и заходят на запад. Если стать лицом на полдень, то одни звезды будут проходить над самой головой с востока на запад, другие впереди пониже и поменьше круги будут делать, другие еще пониже, другие еще пониже, и в самом конце к полдню будут звезды такие, которые только выйдут из-за земли с востока, сделают маленькую дугу и опять зайдут. Если повернуться назад и смотреть на север, то точно так же будут с востока на запад идти звезды, одни над головой, другие пониже, другие еще пониже и еще пониже, но не будет таких звезд, как на полдне, таких, которые только бы вышли из-за земли, сейчас бы и зашли. Здесь на севере будут, напротив, звезды такие, которые будут кружиться с востока на запад, но вовсе не будут заходить за землю, а будут кружиться над землею. На полудни звезды ходят ниже, а на севере выше. —

All the stars go always, as if grappling. If you measure how many from one star to another and from another to the third and to the fourth, then wherever these stars are above your head or above the earth, the distance between them will always be the same. This can be seen by eye in the Cross and in the Big Dipper.

And astronomers measure these distances, and it always turns out that wherever there were stars, above or below, the distance between them is always the same. So the sky with stars spins over our heads, like a canopy all with the same patterns. And all the stars pass over us - both those that are above our heads, their large circles, and those that walk low above the earth, their small circles - all at the same time. The whole sky turns over us at exactly 24 hours. If the star Sirius was right overhead 24 hours ago, and the Red Star had just come out above the earth, then exactly 24 hours later Sirius will be overhead again, the Red> star will be above the earth, and the same stars will again go as they were in previous 24 hours. When you look at the stars for a long time and often, you will memorize them in such a way that as one familiar star appears, now you will know which one will be to the right, to the left, which is ahead, behind, and which other stars will follow these. It's the same as on a familiar carpet, you know what patterns will be when you unfold one end of the carpet. Thus astronomers know the whole firmament of heaven with all the stars. The whole sky with stars is drawn on paper. And in order to make it clearer, the same balls are made of paper, like the whole sky, and these balls are divided into stripes, just as a melon is divided by stripes. These stripes are wide in the middle, and converge to nothing towards the ends. There are 360 ​​such bands, and each band has its own stars. From these drawings it is easy to find each star.

SUN

When they recognize the whole sky with stars like a carpet, then they begin to notice the sun. The sun rises like the stars in the east and sets in the west, but it doesn't move like the stars. All the stars rise and set in the same place and at the same time. And the sun does not rise at the same time, but every day it goes out and sets at a different time than yesterday. From December 11, it comes out earlier and earlier, and from June 11, later and later. And every day the sun rises and sets in a different place, and the sky does not pass in the same circle. The stars all walk with the whole sky, in one piece, and the sun walks especially in the sky and lags behind the stars. So if today before sunrise a star was barely visible and went out, tomorrow this star will already come out before the sun, and the day after tomorrow even earlier, and then even earlier, and even earlier. And so everything will lag behind, and in a year, after 365 [days], the sun will lag behind by a whole circle and will converge in a year again with the same star. The star will turn around 366 times, and the sun 365 times less.<Солнце ходит, как и звезды, с востока на запад, но не по тем кругам, как звезды, а наискоски, так что солнечные круги не сходятся с звездными. Так что если нарисовать на шаре все места звезд и их круги, то солнечная дорога будет перерезать все звездные круги в одну сторону от 11 марта и до 11 сентября, а потом опять перерезать эти круги в другую сторону.>In order to find out how, on which road the sun travels, it is necessary to note with which stars it travels, and from which stars to which it passes. If the stars were visible during the day, it would be easy; and since it is not visible, it is necessary to know the whole sky with the stars in such a way that in the daytime you can point to some place in the sky and know what stars are there now. —

You can get to this in the following way: first of all, you need to find the north, south, east and west, put a stake right along the plumb line and make a cross on the stake so that it shows in all 4 directions. If you approve one semicircle so that it turns from north to south, and measure the angles of the stars on the semicircle on clay from the middle, then when these stars are above your head, all angles can be measured. Today one pair, tomorrow another. Confirm the other circle so that it turns from west to east.

world axis, globe of stars. Instruments, compass. Travel]. Geography to rotate. Journey for moving around the sun.

1) The visibility of the stars in our hemisphere.

2) Meridian, p. Yu. in. h. (compass, circle).

3) Globe of the stars of the hemisphere.

4) The sun's path through the stars of our hemisphere. Retreats and retreats.

5) Equinox.

6) Eclipse<величина солнца.>

8) Lost stars.

1) Journey, other stars, inclination[s.]

2) Travel. Equator, poles of the axis.

3) Globe of all stars, measured by angles.

4) The sun is at the poles, at the equator.

5) Antipodes and winter and summer

6) Eclipse, measurement of the sun.

7) Moon, phases, explanation.

8) Lost stars in different places, their paths, their eclipses.

1) The assumption of the rotation of the earth.

2) The assumption of the circulation of the earth.

STARS

If you look longer at the stars at night, you will see that all the stars move. There are conspicuous stars, and everyone knows them. There are Vysozhary (a bunch of stars), there is a Bear (it is also called the Rocker), there is a Petrov Cross (winter), there is a Triangle. Notice any bunch of stars and look at them all night. Where do they come from and where do they go? If you look at the Bear, you will see that she goes with all the stars in one direction across the sky, as if in a vault, first rises higher and higher above the heads, and then begins to descend and enter. If you notice by some sign where the Bear went, then stand the next night in the same place, with your right hand to the place where you went, and face towards noon and see other stars in front of you. Whatever stars you look at, all of them, just like the Bear, will go along the arch to the top of the circle on the left and go down to the right. Some stars will rise high directly overhead, others in front - lower, some even larger in front - even lower, some in the very front - above the earth, but still they will come out to the left and sink to the right. If you turn back and look in the other direction, to the north, so that the sunrise is on the left and the sunset is on the right, then in the same way from this side all the stars will rise from the sunrise and set to the west. And in the same way, some will pass high above their heads, others further and lower, others even further and lower.

If you look at the stars without telescopes and without habit, then at first you will get confused and lose the star that you noticed. The main thing you get confused is that the stars do not all come out from behind the earth at night and set behind the earth; and as soon as the sun sets, there are many stars in the sky that are already on the move. The night catches only the stars already on a quarter, half and three-quarters of the way. And in the same way, when it dawns, many stars go out in the middle of the sky. But if you pay attention to these stars, you will see that those stars that light up in the middle of the sky also go from east to west, and those stars that go out in the middle of the sky because the sun rises also went from east to west. until they become visible to us. These stars are still going the same way as those that we see at night. They are only invisible to us during the day. If they had not gone, then the next day they would have been at the place where we left them, and this does not happen. That star, which yesterday, as the sun set, lit up over our heads and in the night set in the west over the earth, today is again lit up over our heads. So she came back to that place. And the star that yesterday went out at dawn on the east side, now only at night comes to the west. So she walked during the day. There are spotting scopes in which the stars are visible during the day. And through these chimneys one can see that all the stars go round and round without ceasing, day and night. —

You will also get confused because the sun rises earlier every day in spring and sets later, and in autumn it rises later and sets earlier. Because of this, every day you will see new stars in the spring and you will not see those that you saw in the fall. Those stars that are visible in autumn will be extinguished in spring, because the sun rises earlier and sets later. From this, even in winter, such stars are visible that cannot be seen in summer. But [in] the big tubes of the star are visible during the day. And if in winter at 7 pm a star was visible above your head, then in summer you look through the pipe at the place where it should be in winter, it will be there.

There are a lot of all the stars if you look at them through magnifying spotting scopes, but if you look at them with a simple eye, then there are not as many of them as it seems.

All the stars are visible to the eye both in winter and summer, and large and small no more than 4000. And there are no more than 200 large conspicuous stars.

Large stars were noticed thousands of years ago<астрономами>and drawn on paper. The stars are almost all the same, only one is larger, redder, the other is smaller, whiter, and they could not be copied if each went separately, converged or diverged from another star. But the stars are all interlocked, like nail heads on a board. They do not converge and do not diverge. And as a yoke or a bear (or a saucepan) was made of stars, so these stars always walk. Therefore, heaps of stars are drawn into different shapes, and these shapes are still the same now. In the calendars they write the signs of Aries (ram), fish, Aquarius (a man pours water), Capricorn (a beast with horns), Sagittarius, Scorpio (such an insect), Libra, Virgo, Leo, Cancer, Gemini - these are all stars that are similar to these pictures. So patterns are drawn over all the stars. And the patterns are all the same. All the stars always move as if interlocked, and the distance between one star and another is always the same, wherever these stars are, overhead or above the earth, towards noon or north. Sometimes it seems that when two stars are not high above the earth, they are farther apart than when they are above their heads, but it only seems so, just like everything above the earth seems larger than above their heads. But astronomers measure the distance of a star from a star by angles, and always and everywhere this distance is the same.

So the whole sky with all the stars walks like a canopy over our heads. When you look at the stars for a long time and often, you memorize them in such a way that as soon as one familiar constellation appears, you now know - to the right, to the left, back, ahead, where which star will be, and what other stars will follow. It's the same as on a familiar carpet, you know what patterns will be when you unfold one end of the carpet. This is how astronomers know all the stars.

The whole sky goes above our heads and turns in such a way that as it entered to the right, it will exactly come out to the left with the same stars. And the whole sky turns in such a way that again the same sky falls in the same place in a day - in 24 hours. If at 8 o'clock in the evening the brightest star (Polar) is right almost above our heads, and the Red Star is just rising from the east, then exactly in 24 hours the brightest star will again be directly above our heads, and the Red Star will just rise from the east ; and again the same stars will go as they did yesterday. If we notice a bunch of stars in the west at 7 p.m. in winter, then whenever it’s dark at 6 p.m., we will see this constellation, but when the days get longer and dawn at 7 p.m., these stars will be barely visible. and then they won't be visible at all. But if you look through the pipe at the place where it should be, you will see that the constellation is still there. The same stars walk with the sky above us, but we see others in winter and summer only because they are extinguished by the sun. —

The sky turns and comes to the old place in a day - in 24 hours. But when there were no clocks, the day was considered only because the stars had come to their old place. There was no other way to count the day. The sun cannot be counted because the sunrise and sunset changes every day. If we say: today the sun rises at 4 o'clock or at 7 o'clock, then we know this only because we know that the stars turn around at the same time. And we divided this equal time into 24 hours and we count and measure it when the sun rises and sets.

Where do the stars go when they set below the earth? And where do they come from when they come out of the ground? It used to be thought that water was everywhere around the earth and that the stars fell into the water and went out, and on the other side they came out again and lit up. It was said in the old days that people heard how the sun hisses when it hits the sea, like a red horseshoe in the water, and the same about the stars. But now they travel across all the seas, east and west, and no one has ever heard of stars falling into the sea. Now they travel farther and faster across the seas and over land than in the old days, and they noticed that the stars also change when you move from place to place. If you go to sunrise - to where the stars come from, then the farther you go, the stars will come out earlier. According to signs, which star should rise at 10 pm, if you drive 1000 miles to sunrise, it will rise half an hour earlier. If you drive even further, she will get up even earlier. So, she was there beyond the land, not in the water. If you go to sunset, then which star should set at 3 o'clock, that star will still stand high and will set in another half an hour. This means that she did not fall into the water before, but walked across the sky in the same way as before, only I could not see it.

And no matter how much you go to the east, whatever you go further, the stars will come out early and early, and no matter how much you go to the west, the stars will set later and later. Therefore, we must think that the whole sky, as it walks above us, so exactly it walks below us. The earth hangs in the middle of the sky, and the whole sky with all the stars turns around the earth from east to west.

<ЮГ И СЕВЕР>

If you remember the stars well, you will see that the stars move quickly overhead in large circles, and quieter in smaller circles, and at noon and at midnight they walk very quietly above the earth, so quietly that it is hardly noticeable. But when you look closely, you will see that even there they walk and walk differently at noon and at midnight. For half a day the stars will only come out from behind the earth, and now they will set, and at midnight the extreme stars go higher, and there are those that will just go behind the earth, now they will come out again, and there are those that do not even cling to the earth, but are spinning above the earth and make their small circle also in 24 hours, just as the stars above their heads make large circles. If you look at the stars in Moscow, then you will see stars in the north that do not go beyond the earth, but go above and behind it, do not cling, and at noon you will see those that only rise above the earth and will now set. If you go from Moscow for half a day, to Odessa, and at each station notice the stars in the north and south, you will see that the further you go south, the lower and lower the northern stars will go and begin to cling to the ground, and then they will become go in, and in the south, higher and higher, they will come out from behind the earth, and make circles more. And as you go further, the whole sky will definitely descend to the north, and rise to the south.<Значит, на юг ехать всё равно что на гору.>And you will go so far, and in the north the sky will descend, and in the south it will rise, as if it were all over. And the same will happen if you go north. The sky will also roll over, only in the other direction. Closer to the north, the stars will walk in the north, not touching the earth, and in the south they will follow the earth, and closer to the south, the stars will walk in the south, not touching the earth, and in the north they will walk behind the earth. And in the very middle there will be a place where the stars will walk evenly along the edges - half under the ground, and half above the ground. At this point, the sky will not fall either to the north or to the south, and will rotate smoothly overhead - like a wheel on an axle. And this axis will be straight from north to south. If from this place, where the sky stands evenly, without falling over, go straight to sunrise, then the sky will still stand exactly and turn evenly, no matter how much you go from east to west, or from west to east. Only the more you go to the east, the stars will rise earlier, and the more you go to the west, then later. Therefore, such a place where the sky evenly (not collapsed) walks above us, not only on earth, but there are many such places both to the west and to the east. This is not one place, but a whole road straight from east to west. Wherever you stand on this road, everywhere the sky with stars will spin smoothly, without falling over. This middle road is called the equator.

PLANETS

When you look closely at the stars, you will notice that besides all those stars that turn with the whole sky like nail heads on a board, there are few stars that do not turn with the whole sky, but walk by themselves and walk closer to us than all approved stars. These stars are called astray planets. It can be seen that they are closer, because they obscure the established stars. The same goes for the month. And it can be seen that it is closer to us, because it obscures the established stars. If you look at the sky in the daytime through a chimney, you can see that the sun also obscures the established stars, and therefore is also closer to us than the stars.

How do the misguided stars, the moon and the sun walk?

If you look at the erring stars and notice how they walk, you will see that they converge with one star, then with another, and again come to the old place and again go in the same circle. The moon and the sun also move. But all of them, both astray and the moon and the sun, just like the affirmed stars, come out every day from sunrise and set in the west. But every time they leave from the east, they are already in a different place than where they were yesterday, so that they lag behind or overtake the stars, one forward, others back, some to the right, others to the left.

For a long time people noticed behind the erring stars, behind the moon and the sun, and could not understand how they, together with the whole sky, go and walk by themselves. And until then they could not understand, until one person came up with the idea that it is not the sky that goes above the earth, but the earth itself turns. He said: after all, it will still seem if the whole sky above you turns, or if you turn. If it seems to you that the sky is spinning from right to left, then turn yourself from left to right, everything will be the same. He says: perhaps it is not the sky that rotates, but the whole earth rotates along the middle road from west to east. As we turn, new stars come out for us, more, more new, more - the sun rises, we turn again, and the sun sets. And he says: if we revolve in this way, then the erring stars and the moon and the sun do not revolve around us, but we revolve. The stars that have just strayed, the moon and the sun pass from one star to another, it is they themselves who walk. If so, then it will be easier for us to make out how they walk.

They began to think, and it turned out so exactly. He says: if the earth did not turn, the whole sky would have to turn; and the sky is much larger than the earth. What circle should he make? Another thing. If the sky were to turn, the erring stars and the moon and the sun should turn together with them, but they walk in their own way. If there were many skies, one is closer to us - the moon is spinning on it, the other is further away - comets are on it, the 3rd is still further away - the sun is on it, the 4th is still further away - affirmative stars are on it, so one sky would obscure the other , and we can see through everything to the last stars. —

If they say: yes, how can we not hear that we are spinning? And he says: because - it does not shake and the air goes along with the earth.

7. [GEOMETRY]

Take a stake, tee from below, bran smoothly from above. On this top, lay two even planks one on top of the other and pierce them with a nail, so that they neither tight nor weakly go around on the nail, so that these planks can be brought together, and parted, and wrapped around. Measure from the nail evenly across the planks and drill holes in both planks. Pass the rope through the holes and tie it in one plank, let the rope walk in the other. Whichever plank you unscrew, the rope will be pulled out until you unfold both planochki straight.

Bring the splinters together so that the rope is not stretched out at all, and with the stake move 20 steps away from the house. Fix the stake and put one splinter on one side of the house, and the other on the other side. There will be an angle between the splinters, and the rope will stretch. If the angle is large, it will stretch a lot, if the angle is smaller, it will stretch less. Notice with something how long the rope is stretched. Then step back straight, as you walked from the house, for another 20 steps and again point the splinters to the edges of the house and notice what the angle has become. The angle will become smaller and the rope will stretch out less. Measure how much less the rope is stretched. If you correctly counted 20 steps for the first and second time, then the angle became exactly half as large, and the rope stretched out exactly half the second time. If for the first time she stretched out 2 inches, then the 2nd time only 1 inch. The farther you move away, the angle will be smaller and exactly as much less, how much further you will move away from the house. Move back 60 steps - three times, and the angle will be three times less than before, move back 200 steps - ten times against the first, and the angle will be 10 times less. Come twice as close to the house - only 10 steps, the angle will be twice as large, come all the way, the rope will stretch straight. You can’t get closer, you can’t stretch more. By the corner you can know whether you are far or close to home. If you are standing somewhere, you yourself do not know how many steps from home, then by the corner you can find out how many steps to the house. - Take the corner. Notice on the string how much it stretched. Bend the rope, how much it stretched, and notice half. Move further until the angle is half as much, until it converges to the bent half. When it converges, measure how much you walked away. How far you have gone, exactly so much from the first place where you stood to the house. The angle has become half as much, which means you have passed half. How many in this half, so much in that half. If there is a house behind the river and you want to know how many fathoms are before it, you can measure the angle.

If you want to measure how many steps from you to the pole, but you can’t approach the pole, then you can measure it like this: point one splinter at one end of the pole, and the other at the other, measure how long the rope will stretch. Notice half and step back until the rope is only half extended; how many steps passed, so many from the first place to the pillar. So you can measure, but it’s easy to make a mistake, because the corner will be small, the rope will not stretch a little, and just make a mistake, you won’t find the half. In order not to be mistaken, you can measure from a pole in the following way: point both splinters at the pole, then spread them in both directions so that [b] they become straight. Take a pole of 4 arshins, put it in the middle directly against the post along the divorced splinters. Then go to the right end of the pole and aim the right splinter at the pole. Mark on the string what the angle will be. Again spread the splinter straight, go to the left side of the pole and point the left splinter to the post. Notice on the rope what the angle will be. The angles will be the same. Then put a double pole in place of the former one, so that there are 8 arshins. Then again point at the pole and measure the fragile rope on both sides of the double pole. The corners will get smaller. Step back with the double pole until the angles are the same as before. When the corners are the same as before, measure how far you have gone from the first place. There will be exactly as many from 2nd place to 1st place as from first place to the post.

If there is a pillar behind the river and you want to measure how far to it, you can measure with a square and a pole without going up to the pillar.

Angles can be measured in the same way as with a chain or rope. And you can measure by angles without reaching the place you are measuring, but by moving back as much as from place to place. But by measuring the angles, you can go through not the whole place, but half, a quarter, a third, an eight, and even less; just make sure the angles are correct.

If I want to know how far it is from me to the house across the river, I will put splinters at both ends, notice the corner and go back until the corner is half as large. But if there is nowhere to go back, you can measure without leaving the whole place. I will go back 10 steps and see how much the angle has decreased. If the angle has decreased by a third, I don’t need to go further - I will say: 10 steps, the third part. Three parts will be 30 steps. So it's 30 steps to the house. That's exactly what it will be. If the square is made well, then you can walk even less. I stepped back two steps, the angle decreased by the 15th part, so two steps is the 15th part, the 15th part of two steps will be thirty steps, so be it. The only thing is that the square is well made and that every small corner and how many small corners are in the big one can be seen. You won’t notice a small angle on a rope. In order to be able to notice small angles and divide them into the smallest ones, make a square like this. Put a round plank on the stake. In the middle of this plank, strengthen with a nail one<на>the other two even splinters, so that they go steep and do not go anywhere beyond the edge of the board. And all the angles that you need, draw with a pencil from the middle along the splinter, as if along the rulers. If you draw foolishly, you will scribble the whole board and not get any sense, but in order to prepare the smallest corners for you ahead, spread the splinter straight ahead, draw a line along them, then bring them together to the middle, draw another line under them. There will be two large flat corners. Then each large angle was divided into two more. Draw under them, there will be 4 corners.

And then share more, as much as you need, more and more -<до тех пор, пока видны.>

When you have the whole half of the board drawn into small even corners, then you will not need any other splinter or string, but just one splinter is enough for it to go along the entire half of the board, from one corner to another. Yes, you need to remember how many angles you have: 10, 20, 30, 40, 100 - no matter how many. With this square it is shorter and more dexterous to measure. You put a splinter on a dash and point it to one edge of the house, then you point it from the same place to the other edge of the house, the splinter will go to another dash. Count how many corners the splinter went from one dash to another. If she has passed 10 corners, you no longer need to move away until there is only half - 5 corners, and you only move away until there are nine out of 10 corners. As it decreased by one corner, consider how much you have gone. No matter how much you walk (whether 100 steps, three steps, two inches), add up 10 times how much you walked - so much will be from the first place to the house.

<Угольники делают хорошие, медные. Вместо доски круг медный расчерчен на утолки, а вместо лучинки труба ходит по кругу или два столбика с волосками, чтоб по ним наводить. И весь круг делят всегда на 360 уголков, половину на 180, четверть на 90, осьмушку на 45, треть осьмушки на 15; треть трети осьмушки на 5. Так что последние уголки чуть видны, если мерить их близко к середине.>

With these squares it is even easier to measure with a pole not from two ends of a house or from two trees, but from one tree or a post or some other thing. You put a splinter on the middle line where the entire half of the board is divided in half into two even corners, and you point the splinter at the thing from which you measure. Then you take the pole and put it to your left right along the middle line on the board so that the pole with the splinter lies under that half big angle, you transfer the square to the other side forever from the pole, and you will notice what angle to the left the splinter gives from the middle one. Now either put another pole in the same position and go back until the angle is the same. Or, without laying down the pole, go back until the angle is half as large. Or step back until the corner is one corner smaller. If there were all 6 corners, you stepped back 2 steps and there were 5 corners, then 6 times 2 steps - 12 steps. And even shorter, here's how. When you put the pole to the left, point the splinter, notice the angle, how far the splinter moved away from the half angle to the left. As far as she moved away, that’s exactly the angle there at that thing, if someone from there looked and pointed at one end and at the other end of the pole. There are three corners in this corner, 10 arshins in the pole. You just need to find out how many miles, sazhens or steps 10 arshins, if you look at both ends, they will give an angle of three corners. You can find out how. Make a stick of 10 octuplets of an inch (1 in. 1/4 ) and look at both ends through the square. If the stick gives less than 3 corners, put it closer, more, put it farther.

8. [PHYSICS]

WHERE DID FIRE COME WITH WHEN PEOPLE DID NOT KNOW FIRE?

In one place, lightning struck a tree and lit it - there was a fire.

In another place, people piled a stack of damp hay, the hay caught fire - there was a fire.

In the third place, in the forest in the wind, the trees rubbed against each other - and caught fire. In the 4th place, iron hit a stone - fire splashed. When people recognized the fire, they began to observe it so that it would not go out. And when it went out, they did the same thing that the trees in the forest did. They took two dry trees, rubbed them against each other, and a fire ignited; then they learned to collect tinder and carved fire from the stone. They learned to dry wood to make it burn, they learned to burn oil and lard in candles to make it shine. Then they learned how to get sulfur and make sernichki. Then they learned how to get phosphorus and make matches. They learned how to get coal out of the ground to burn it instead of firewood, they learned how to make glass and light it with the sun through glass, they learned how to collect electricity and use it to light and heat and shine. Everywhere there was a lot of things to burn, and everyone has something to light;<либо трутом из кремня, либо спичкой, либо стеклом.>

People argued with the sun and said: now we can do without the sun: we have fire and light everywhere, and we know what and how to burn. We don't need the sun.

The sun said: Where did you get the first fire from?

- Not from you, but from lightning.

- Where does the lightning come from?

- From a thundercloud.

- And where is the cloud from? the sun said. - The cloud was water on the ground, I heated the water, raised it with steam and collected it into clouds.

People said: Yes, we don’t need lightning, we got the fire from the tree, rubbed the wood against each other, and the fire began.

Who grew the trees? the sun said. - Those trees that you burn were seeds and lay on frozen ground, I steamed, loosened the ground and pulled the trees towards me. Without me, you wouldn't have a tree.

People said: Well, we would take fire from flint.

“I dried the flint,” said the sun, “but you won’t believe me. But even from flint you would not have taken fire if there were no tinder and wood, and I grew them.

- Well, we took fire from the grass. They piled a damp stack, it caught fire, we took the fire.

Who grew the grass?<Да и кто согрел ее в стоге.>

- So we pour quicklime with water, and there will be a fire.

Who made the water? All I did was dissolve it from the ice.

“So we start an electric spark and make a fire.

- What will your electricity be made of - glass? This is how glass is made in fire, but without me there would be no fire. If you make electricity from iron and copper, then you also need to pour water on it, but without me there would be no water. Yes, perhaps, the sun said, I will leave a fire for you - how will you heat and shine without me?

We will be firewood.

“The firewood is all from me,” said the sun. “If I had not grown new forests, you would have burned everything long ago and you would have nothing to burn.

"Then we'll burn coal."

“The coal is all from me. Earthen coal - these are the forests that I grew. The same forests as now, only they were covered with earth. - Well, yes, perhaps, take coal - how will you shine? And you have nothing to shine without me either. You will not have a splint if I do not grow birches; you won't have oil if I don't grow hemp, flax, mustard, sunflowers.

We will burn fat.

- Where's the fat from? From cattle. And what do the cattle eat? Grass, bread. I grow everything.

- There is oil, oil underground, we will dig it out, we will make kerosene and we will burn it and shine it.

- Well, - said the sun, - you will burn coal and shine with oil, where will you get power from?

You think you have power. You have steam engines turning cars, running along rails, you have mills running on water and in the wind, you have horses, oxen carry, you yourself dig, chop, drag. Where do all these forces come from? All from me. Apart from me, there is no power in the world. - What I warm, then the strength.

You have a steam engine running, moving valves, turning wheels and running on rails. Who is spinning it? Warm. If there is no warm water, there will be no power.

WHY WARM?

When the sun is not covered by clouds, water warms and dries from it, resin and wax bloom, iron, stone are heated, and if a convex glass is placed under the sun, then paper and wood ignite from the sun. This first heat from the sun is called sunny.

If you rub wood against wood, the wood warms up. If you ride on an unoiled cart, then the axle warms up, if the horse hits the stone firmly with a spike, then a spark will jump out. If you put a stack of raw hay, then it will begin to settle and get warm, and then it will burn with fire.<Кузнецы, чтобы добыть огня, бьют молотком гвоздь и потом к нему приставляют серничек, и он загорается.>This is another heat from some kind of force, either from friction, or from impact, or from pressure. This heat is called mechanical.

If water is suddenly poured into dry, scorched lime, the lime will warm up like boiling water and catch fire. If you blow hard on the red-hot iron, the air will mix with the red-hot iron, and the iron will become hot and ignite with fire. This is the third heat, and fire from the mixture: from water mixed with lime, or red-hot iron with air. This heat is called chemical.

When lightning strikes a tree, the tree catches fire. Not from the sun, not from friction and not from mixing, but from some other force. If you put your hand on a telegraph wire and start up an electric machine, you will feel heat, and if you put gunpowder, it will flare up. And this fire will not be from the sun, nor from friction, nor from mixing, but from some other force. Where this power comes from, no one knows. And this force is called electricity.

Heat is the same both in the sun and in fire, when you wipe it out of wood, and in fire, when lime or a haystack is burning, and in electric fire, when a thunderstorm kindles, but each heat is shown differently. The sun's heat from afar burns with rays. These rays, far and near, are equally warm. The heat of the sun is only stronger when there are more rays. Mechanical heat acts only in the place where the force is directed; only the place that you rub is heated. And the harder you rub, the stronger the heat. Chemical heat acts through all the particles of the body and is the stronger, the more particles are mixed with each other. More water and lime - more heat, less water and lime - less heat. Electric heat does not act by rays, but by sparks. The more electrical sparks, the more heat.

EXTENSIBILITY OF BODIES FROM HEAT

From the heat everything is distributed, from the cold everything shrinks.

If the screw does not go into the nut, then heat the nut and the screw will go in. And if the screw is weak, then heat the screw, and it will be tight.

And if the silver ring is narrow on the finger and hold the finger with the ring in a warm oven, what will happen? The ring will expand on the finger, but the finger will expand even more, and the ring will become even tighter.

And if the cork is tightly driven in the neck and the neck is heated, what will happen? The cork will become weak because the glass expands more from the heat than the cork.

Iron with iron is equally stretched and compressed by heat and cold. And different substances compress and stretch in different ways.

Silver is less exposed to heat than the body, and glass more than cork.

HEAT AND MOTION

All movement in the world comes from heat. How can heat move things? From heat things are distributed. If there were only one thing in the world, and then it would move from heat, as water moves if it is boiled from below or heated in the sun. But if you let a lot of different things into the water: dust, branches, oil, sand, paper, flour and others, then all these things would begin to move in the water, converge and diverge.

The same thing is done by heat in the world. All things in the world are different. One is quickly distributed from the heat, the other does not give in for a long time. Put raw boards, iron, wax, resin in the sun, and see in a week. The board will bend, push the iron, the resin will stick, drain, the wax will slip.

But if you collect liquids and gases under a hood and put in the sun, then even more changes will be made.

All movement is because things give in to heat in different ways.

Put a sheet of iron in the sun in summer. It will heat up so that it is impossible to touch it with a hand, and it will not budge, it will only be heard a little. And put a cup of water, half will steam up into the sky, that you won’t find it, and almost nothing will be added to the heat in the water.

The heat went evenly on the iron and on the water, but the iron does not give in to the sun, the heat remained warm, it only distributed it a little, and the water gives in to heat. She became a ferry and moved to another place, and there was almost nothing added to her warmth.

But take it and put wax on a heated sheet of iron. The wax will melt and flow over the sheet. Therefore, the heat from the iron passed into the wax and dissolved it. Take, pour this wax into a glass of water, the water will become warmer, steam will come out of it; catch this steam and put a piece of ice in it. The ice will melt and become water. Freeze water, heat will come out into the air, catch warm air, blow it onto a sheet of iron, the iron will warm up again.

Catch the steam that came out of the water, cool it, it will release heat. Put the wax in the heat, the wax will dissolve. Cool on iron. The iron will warm up; cool the iron in water, steam will come out of the water. Put steam into a cup of water, the water will warm up.

This is how heat passes from one thing to another. Whatever thing lends itself to it, it moves that from place to place, like water, wax, breaks into small parts; and what does not give in to it, in that it remains warm, as in iron.

So the sun warms and works. What heats more, works less; What works more, heats less. But neither work nor heat is ever lost, and work can always become heat, and heat work.

The sand is scorched in the desert. How does he seem to get the job done? And you look - the air will become less frequent, cold air will be drawn in, and the wind will go to work - it will carry the clouds.

The wind is blowing; how can he be warm? The man built the mill. The wind whirled its wings, the millstones caught fire.

The stoker fires the steam engine. The pistons were pushed in, the wheels spun, the work began. How can she be warm? Do not smear the wheels, but let them go on new rails, the axles of the wheels and the rails will burn with fire.

The sun bakes in the summer air in the forest. There is no heat, everything is cold. Where did the heat go? It does the work, builds the trees. How to make this work with heat? Light a tree, and all the heat that a tree has gained in a hundred years will come out in fire.

The horse eats oats - work. How to make it warm? Lock the doors, she will breathe - only food.

HEAT AND MOTION

All movement in the world comes from heat. If only one thing existed in the world, and that would be: it moved from heat, as water moves if it is boiled from below or heated in the sun.

But things in the world are different. One is quickly distributed from the heat, the other is not served for a long time. Put raw boards, iron, resin in the sun and see what happens in a week. The board will bend, push the iron, the resin will bloom, stick. And all these things will no longer lie the way you put them.

But if you collect liquids and gases under a hood and put in the sun, then even more changes will be made. All movement is because things give in to heat in different ways.

Put an iron sheet in the sun in summer. It will heat up so that you can’t touch it with your hand, but it won’t budge.

Put wax on a heated sheet of iron. The wax will melt and flow over the sheet, and the iron will cool. Therefore, the heat from the iron passed into the wax and loosened and moved it. The heat in the iron did the work - it dissolved the wax, and when it did the work, the iron cooled down.

As soon as a thing heats up, it either moves on its own, but cannot move, so it gives up its heat to another thing, and the other thing will move.

Now another thing: as soon as some thing moves, then if something prevents it from moving, then instead of movement it becomes warm again. —

River flows. This is movement. A man will put up a mill. The wheels do not let the water go directly, they stop the movement. The wheels will start to spin, the thorns and millstones will light up.

But do not smear the thorns, but let them spin on the tree, and the tree will burn with fire.

From the movement will become warm.

Throw a piece of iron on the anvil. The anvil prevented the iron from flying down. Feel the iron and the anvil - both have become warm.

The trees will dry up, they will sway with the wind, they will rub against each other. Trees interfere with each other's movement. They will rub and burn.

If you look carefully, you will see that movement is made from any heat, and heat is made from any movement; so that neither heat nor movement disappears, but from heat movement is made, and from movement again heat, and from heat again movement, and so on without end.

The sun bakes on the bare steppe and heats the air and the earth. How this warmth seems to become a movement; and you look - the hot air will become less frequent over the steppe. Clean cold air will pull in its place, and there will be movement - the wind.

How, it seems, to make warm again out of this wind. And you look - the wind blows on the mill. Wings are spinning, thorns and millstones are warm. At least a small part of the movement became warm. And the rest of the wind in another place in a different order, but it will become warm. Boiling water. How, it seems, this warmth becomes a movement. And the man caught steam, locked him in a steam engine and began to stick pistons with them and turn the wheels - there was a movement. The car is running. How can this movement become warm. And feel the wheels, the rails - they burn. Already part of the movement has turned into heat.

The sun warms the forest. There is no heat. It's cold in the forest. Where does this warmth go? The heat goes to the movement, only that the movement is not very noticeable to us. The movement is that the trees grow.

How to make this movement warm? Light a tree, and all the heat that in a hundred years the tree has gained by movement - growth - will come out as warmth. —

The sun warms the meadows and grows grass. There is no heat, but there is movement - the grass grows. How to make this movement warm again? Put the grass in a pile, it will catch fire.

Warmed, warmed the sun of the field, made a movement - grew bread. How can this movement become heat? The man ate this bread, and the blood warmed in it.

The man began to work, and there was movement again.

9. [CHEMISTRY]

HOW SUBSTANCES COMBINE

Gases are rarely pure in the world in themselves, but almost always combine with other substances. Hydrogen is always mixed with oxygen, or carbon with oxygen, or oxygen with iron, or with copper, with flint, and with various other substances. When strong substances or gases are mixed with each other, it is difficult to make out what they are combined from, because they do not mix so that there is a piece of oxygen, a piece of iron, but they are mixed in such small particles that not a single smallest particle of the former substance can be found. , and a new substance is being made.

<Когда два вещества смешиваются так, что можно разобрать хоть в увеличительное стекло самые маленькие частички веществ смеси, то это называется механическое соединение, но когда нельзя отыскать прежних частиц, и всё вещество делается другое и на вид, и на запах, и на вкус, тогда это называется химическое соединение. Если сметать вместе самый мелкий синий порошок с самым мелким желтым порошком, то сделается зеленый порошок. На вид порошок изменится; но на запах, на вкус, на ощупь он будет такой же. И если рассмотреть его в стекло увеличительное, то будут видны синие и желтые крупинки. Но если железо заржавеет, т. е. смешается кислород с железом, то ржавчина и на вид, и на запах, и на ощупь, и на вкус будет совсем не такая, как железо и кислород, и в какое увеличительное стекло ни смотри, не увидишь частиц кислорода и железа. Это химическое соединение.>

If you take oxygen and hydrogen and mix it, and then ignite this mixture, now the hydrogen will ignite, take in as much oxygen as it needs, the whole mixture will become wet and water will turn from steam, and in this water you will not find a single particle of oxygen , no hydrogen.

There is sodium metal and chlorine gas. If you eat a piece of sodium, you will die - it is poison. If you breathe in chlorine, you will also die, as if from poison. If you bring these two substances together, then a fire will flare up, crack like a gun, and a precipitate will form. If you cool this sediment, then the sediment will be salt. The same salt that is eaten with bread.

10. [MINERALOGY]

DIAMOND

<Золото дороже всего на свете — железа, меди и серебра. Оно дороже всего потому, что оно крепче железа, меди и серебра. Из золота можно сделать проволоку такую тонкую, как нитку. И на этой проволоке можно поднять человека.>

Of all the stones, the most expensive diamond. Diamond is the strongest thing in the world. Diamond can cut any other stone. And no other stone can cut a diamond. Diamond is expensive also because no stone and no glass shines like a diamond. —

And diamonds are expensive because there are very few of them. The smallest diamond costs three rubles. Glaziers buy these to cut glass. A pea-sized diamond is already worth 100 times more. But a diamond the size of a walnut is more expensive than a big house - one hundred thousand rubles<и больше. Таких больших алмазов есть только четыре во всем свете. Один в России, другой во Франции, третий в Италии, четвертый во Франции.>

Diamonds are found in the ground. They lie like small pebbles in red clay. When a diamond is found in the ground, it does not shine. But when they find out that it is a diamond, then they clean it, and then it begins to shine. Diamonds are cleaned with other diamonds.

11. [TECHNOLOGY AND MECHANICS]

<КАК СТРОЯТ МЕЛЬНИЦЫ НА ВОДЕ

Mills can only be built on flowing water - on a stream or on a river. It is necessary to block the river so that the water has nowhere to flow. You can block the water a hundred>

<КАК ДЕЛАЮТ КОЛЕСА

Cut down a big oak tree. They will saw off an even cutting from the oak without branches and a sazhen long. Then they will split this oak into several long strips. Then they will take these strips and put them in a hot bath, which is called a greenhouse. Then, when the oak strips are steamed, then they are bent. They will make a circle of wood, like a round cake. A breakdown will be approved in the side of this circle. A strip will be inserted into the hole, and three men will bend it. Bent and tied>

<КАК ДЕЛАЮТ ВОДКУ

They take flour, grind it and sweep it with hot water to make a thick porridge. Then they will cool this mash and pour it into a large tub so that the tub is not full - less than half. Then yeast will be put into this congestion. (The yeast is made from hops.) Then they add water and wait until the mash rises in big bubbles. When the mash begins to ferment and rises level with the tub, then it is poured into a copper dish. Then they begin to boil the mash in a copper bowl. And on the dishes there is a large copper cap. And cold water is pouring onto the cap. As the mash boils, steam will rise from it, this steam cools under the hood and flows vodka into the tap, and from the tap into the dishes.>

<КАК СДЕЛАТЬ ПЕСОЧНЫЕ ЧАСЫ

It is necessary to take two bottles or flasks. And seal the necks of the bottles with wax or sealing wax so that a small hole remains. And in one of them pour fine sand. The sand must first be sifted through a sieve so that there is not a single pebble in it. Then put an empty bottle on the one that is filled with sand, so that the neck is on the neck. Then tie both bottles together. Then turn the bottles over so that the empty one is at the bottom, and the filled with sand is at the top. Then look at the clock, and when half an hour has passed, notice how much sand will be poured into an empty bottle, and notice with paint a line on the glass for how long the sand will be. Then again, after half an hour, notice two dashes of paint, and so on until all the sand has spilled out. Then turn the bottles over again and notice the same thing on the other. Then the clock is ready, and you can always tell by the dash how much time has passed.>

Notes

77. Crossed out: Magi were people who guessed what would happen to people. Oleg called the Magi and said: Tell me what will happen to me, will I die soon and what will cause my death.

78. Crossed out: feed and water him, but never ride him. So they did. 10 years have passed.

79. Start: Oleg's servants answered: Your horse lived a long time, we fed and watered it, and no one rode it. He became old and died. Oleg said: The Magi told me a lie. And I was wrong to believe them. If I didn't believe them, I would ride this horse. And I didn't have another. And Oleg felt very sorry for the horse. He asked: Where did you put it? The servants said: We abandoned him. The wolves ate him. Only bones remained.

80. In the original: close to the forest

81. When I went to bed, I dreamed that all the mice in the world were gathered in one barn, and that I had a fire in my hands, and someone said to me: Here, if you want, light the barn, and you will kill all the mice for that. that they ruined your apple trees. And I seemed to be delighted and wanted to burn the barn; but then the foxes suddenly jumped out and began to ask me not to burn the mice.

82. Words: all alive and all kidneys stuck with frost inserted in the proof-layout.

83. In the margin against the last two phrases is written: Wolves on the trail.

84. Original: October

85. The sun and the moon, when they set and leave, seem larger than when they stand high in the sky. For thirty arshins on the ground, look at a person, and he will seem much larger than if you look at that person when he climbs a tree at 30 arshins. On the bell tower, the cross seems small, but how high is the bell tower? look at the cross on the ground, it will seem great.

86. Measure the corners like this: Take an even wooden circle (latok). Set the middle. Break off exactly half. This half was divided in half, each quarter in half again, and in half again, so that there were 180 divisions in the half. Designate these divisions with a knife at the end of the semicircle. Fix the semicircle so that it can be turned and that it stands firm. Spread a semicircle on your finger with thick clay. If you want to measure the distance between two stars, draw a semicircle so that you can see both stars. Look at one through the semicircle from the middle and draw a wand from the eye to the star to the edge of the circle, then look at the other from the same middle and draw another line on the clay from the eye to the edge of the semicircle with a wand. The two lines meet at an angle. Look at the grooves, how many divisions between two lines. If the star is farther from the star, then the angle will be larger, if it is smaller, then the angle will be smaller. So they measure the distance between the stars and believe. And the distance is always the same.

87. In the margins, opposite this place, it is written: what time

88. In the margins between the fifth and sixth chapters it is written: As op. canopy. Axis tilt. The sun is at the equator. The movement of the sun and the moon.

89. In the margin against this phrase is written: North and south. Sun stop, movement. Moon. Comets, planets. The distance of the stars. coup. The sun obscures the stars.

90. It is written in the margins: The planets, the moon, the sun (last) obscure. Distances. If they put me on a vert.<столб и стали бы вертеть>and the earth turns on its axis, and the sun walks. Path of the planets. Is the earth moving? Will it be the same?

92. In the original: not closer

93. Word: where it is written twice.

95. In the margin against this phrase is marked: compass.

Fairy tales created by L. Tolstoy often have a scientific and educational character. Animation of objects, a magical fairy-tale form help to assimilate geographical concepts: “Shat Ivanovich did not listen to his father, lost his way and disappeared. And Don Ivanovich listened to his father and went where his father ordered. On the other hand, he traveled all over Russia and became famous” (“Shat and Don”).
The fairy tale “Volga and Vazuza” attracts the attention of a child with a dispute between two sister rivers: “There were two sisters: Volga and Vazuza. They started arguing about which of them is smarter and who will live better.” This tale teaches to reason

And draw the right conclusions.
Tolstoy's fairy tales are designed to facilitate the memorization of scientific material. Many works of the "New ABC" and "Russian Books for Reading" are subject to this principle. In the preface to the ABC, Tolstoy writes: “In general, give the student as much information as possible and challenge him to the greatest number of observations in all branches of knowledge; but communicate to him as little as possible general conclusions, definitions, subdivisions, and any terminology.”
L. Tolstoy patiently reworked his stories and editions for educational books. His son recalled: “At that time, he compiled the ABC and checked it on us - his children. He told and forced us to tell these stories in our own words.” Leo Tolstoy for the first time brings together the style of popular science and fiction in educational books for children. In his short cognitive tales and stories, scientific character is harmoniously combined with poetry and figurativeness. The writer sought to give children the information they could about the laws of nature, advised them on how to use these laws in practice in peasant life and economy:
“There is a worm, it is yellow, it eats a leaf. From the worm of that silk.
- “The swarm sat on a bush. Uncle took it off, took it to the hive. And he had a whole year of white honey.
“Listen to me, my dog: bark at the thief, don’t let us into the house, but don’t scare the children and play with them.”
“The girl caught a dragonfly and wanted to tear her legs. Father said: these same dragonflies sing at dawn. The girl remembered their songs and let them go.”
Geographical information and descriptions of natural phenomena, historical events, physical properties of bodies are given for educational and cognitive purposes and at the same time artistically. Tolstoy uses a variety of methods and techniques of presentation; for example, he writes stories on physics in the form of reasoning. So, in the story “Heat”, the narrative unfolds with the help of questions and answers:
Why does a glass burst when you pour boiling water into it? Because the place where the boiling water warms up, stretches, and the place where there is no boiling water remains the same: below it pulls the glass apart, but at the top it does not let it go, and it bursts.
“Heat”, “Dampness”, “Why do trees crack in frost?” and many other scientific and educational stories the writer builds in the form of a dialogue that helps the children analyze and generalize, reason and come to an independent conclusion. He teaches to peer into the phenomena of nature, depicts them poetically, using apt comparisons. Such, for example, is the story “What kind of dew is on the grass”: “When you inadvertently pick off a leaf with a dewdrop, the drop will roll down like a ball of light, and you won’t see how it slips past the stem.”

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Essay on literature on the topic: Cognitive tales of L. N. Tolstoy

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Cognitive tales of L. N. Tolstoy

Fairy tales,

created by L. Tolstoy often have a scientific and educational character. Animation of objects, a magical fairy-tale form help to assimilate geographical concepts: “Shat Ivanovich did not listen to his father, lost his way and disappeared. And Don Ivanovich listened to his father and went where his father ordered. But he went through all of Russia and became famous ”(“ Shat and Don ”).

The fairy tale “Volga and Vazuza” attracts the attention of a child with a dispute between two sister rivers: “There were two sisters: Volga and Vazuza. They started arguing about which of them is smarter and who will live better.” This tale teaches to reason and draw the right conclusions.

Tales of Tolstoy

designed to facilitate the memorization of scientific material. Many works of the "New ABC" and "Russian Books for Reading" are subordinated to this principle. In the preface to the ABC, he writes: “In general, give the student as much information as possible and call him to the greatest number of observations in all branches of knowledge; but communicate to him as little as possible general conclusions, definitions, subdivisions, and any terminology.”

L. Tolstoy

patiently reworked his stories and published them for educational books. His son recalled: “At that time he compiled the ABC and checked it on us - his children. He told and forced us to retell these stories in our own words.” Leo Tolstoy for the first time brings together the style of popular science and fiction in educational books for children. In his short cognitive tales and stories, scientific character is harmoniously combined with poetry and figurativeness. The writer sought to give children the information they could about the laws of nature, advised them on how to use these laws in practice in peasant life and economy:

• “There is a worm, it is yellow, it eats a leaf. From the worm of that silk.
• “The swarm sat on a bush. Uncle took it off, took it to the hive. And he had a whole year of white honey.
• “Listen to me, my dog: bark at the thief, don’t let us into the house, but don’t scare the children and play with them.”
• “The girl caught a dragonfly and wanted to tear her legs. Father said: these same dragonflies sing at dawn. The girl remembered their songs and let them go.

Geographic Information

and descriptions of natural phenomena, historical events, physical properties of bodies are given for educational and cognitive purposes and at the same time artistically. Tolstoy uses a variety of methods and techniques of presentation; for example, he writes stories on physics in the form of reasoning. So, in the story "Heat" the narrative unfolds with the help of questions and answers:

• “Why does a glass burst when you pour boiling water into it? Because the place where the boiling water warms up, stretches, and the place where there is no boiling water remains the same: below it pulls the glass apart, but at the top it does not let it go, and it bursts.

"Heat", "Dampness",

“Why do trees crack in the cold?” and many other scientific and educational stories the writer builds in the form of a dialogue that helps the children analyze and generalize, reason and come to an independent conclusion. He teaches to peer into the phenomena of nature, depicts them poetically, using apt comparisons. Such, for example, is the story “What is the dew on the grass”: “When you inadvertently pick off a leaf with a dewdrop, the drop will roll down like a ball of light, and you won’t see how it slips past the stem.”