What is sports training. Technical training in sports

Physical training (both general and special) is carried out in the process of sports training.

The term “sports training” largely coincides in its content with the term “training of athletes”. At the same time, they need to be distinguished. Athlete training is a broader concept.

Sports training- this is the appropriate use of knowledge, means, methods and conditions, which allows for a targeted influence on the development of an athlete and ensures the necessary degree of his readiness for sports achievements. Sports training includes the physical, technical, tactical, and mental aspects of an athlete’s preparation.

Sports training- this is that part of the athlete’s training that is built on the basis of the exercise method. For example, if an athlete performs any physical exercise, this means that sports training is carried out during preparation. If he studies the peculiarities of the competitive activity of his opponents by watching video recordings, then in this case preparation is carried out, but training is not. The positive effect of training should be expressed in an increased level of functional capabilities of the athlete’s body, general and special performance. The functional state of an athlete, his fitness level is the main object of control in the process of sports training. In turn, the athlete’s training system includes such processes as: competition, sports training, material and information support for training conditions.

In training, and especially in competitive activity, none of the aspects of sports training manifests itself in isolation. They are combined into a complex multifunctional process aimed at achieving the highest sporting results.

Technical training- teaching the technique of actions performed in competitions or serving as training tools. In the process of technical training, the athlete masters the technique of the chosen sport, masters the corresponding motor skills and abilities, bringing them to the highest possible degree of perfection.

Tactical training For an athlete, it involves mastering the theoretical foundations of sports tactics, practical mastery of tactical techniques, their combinations, options, nurturing tactical thinking and other abilities that determine tactical skill.

Mental preparation. The main content of mental training is the cultivation of volitional abilities: purposefulness, determination and courage, perseverance and perseverance, endurance and self-control, independence and initiative. Mental preparation is carried out during training with gradually increasing difficulties and in competitive conditions.

Physical training. As mentioned above, physical training is divided into general and special physical training. Each sport has its own specific requirements for the athlete’s physical fitness - the level of development of individual physical qualities, functionality and physique. Therefore, there are certain differences in the content and methods of physical training in a particular sport, among athletes of different ages and qualifications. The ratio of GPP and SPP in the training process depends on the tasks being solved, age, qualifications and individual characteristics of the athlete, the type of sport, stages and periods of the training process. In the process of long-term training, as the athlete’s skill increases, the proportion of SPT funds increases and, accordingly, the volume of GPP funds decreases. The effectiveness of the training process can be determined by the quality of such concepts as fitness, readiness, sports form.

Fitness An athlete is characterized by the degree of functional adaptation of the body to the imposed training loads, which is formed as a result of systematic physical exercise and contributes to increased performance.

Fitness is divided into general and special.

General fitness is formed under the influence of general developmental exercises that increase the functional capabilities of the body.

Special fitness is acquired as a result of performing a specific type of muscle activity in a chosen sport.

Fitness is always focused on a specific type of athlete’s specialization and is expressed:

in increasing the level of functional capabilities of his body,

specific and general performance,

in the achieved degree of perfection of sports skills.

Preparedness- this is a complex result of the athlete’s physical, technical, tactical, mental preparation.

Sports uniform- this is the highest degree of preparedness of an athlete, characterized by his ability to simultaneously implement various aspects of the athlete’s training (technical, physical, tactical, mental) in competitive activity. Sports form is associated with the manifestation of a complex perception of competitive activity in the chosen sport: “sense of water”, “sense of ice”, “sense of the ball”, etc.

In modern sports, the importance of technical training is constantly increasing. The world's strongest athletes have relatively equal training. Consequently, even a slight advantage in any section of it can be decisive for victory. It is in this regard that technical training provides athletes with the greatest reserves, since its practical implementation and scientific justification are still far from possible limits (D. D. Donskoy, 1966, 1967, 1975; V. M. Dyachkov, 1967; D. D. Donskoy, V. M. Zatsiorsky, 1979; L. P. Matveev, A. L. Novikov, 1976; V. S. Keller, 1967; V. K. Balsevich, 1975, etc.).

A high level of technical preparedness of an athlete not only ensures the fruitful use of the potential of his motor skills in conditions of intense competition, but also creates opportunities for intensifying the training process and increasing its quality level (V.K. Balsevich, 1975).

The technical training of an athlete is understood as teaching him the basics of the technique of actions performed in competitions or serving as a means of training and improving selected forms of sports technique. Like any purposeful training, the technical training of an athlete is a process of managing the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities. It is subject to the general principles of didactics and didactic provisions of the methods of physical education. The features of sports and technical training are determined by the fact that it is built according to the laws of achieving mastery in the chosen sport (L. P. Novikov, A. D. Novikov, 1976; L. P. Matveev, 1977; G. D. Ashmarin, 1979 and etc.).

The central task of sports and technical training is the need to develop such skills in performing competitive actions that would allow an athlete to use his capabilities in competitions with the greatest efficiency and ensure the steady improvement of technical skills in the process of many years of sports. This formulation includes a number of tasks: knowledge of the theoretical foundations of sports technology; modeling of individual forms of technology; formation of skills and abilities; updating forms of technology; creation of new forms of technology, etc. (L. P. Matveev, A. D. Novikov, 1976).

All this relates primarily to special sports and technical training. General technical training consists of replenishing the fund of skills and abilities that are a prerequisite for the formation of technical skills in the chosen sport, and also includes training in the technique of exercises chosen as additional means of physical training. In addition to mastering skills, an essential aspect of this section of training should be the development of coordination abilities, on which sports and technical improvement depends to a decisive extent.

In the materials of the 1st All-Union Conference on the Problems of Sports Technology, two factors for the growth of sports achievements were noted: 1) improvement of teaching and training methods, which makes it possible to reveal the reserve biological capabilities of the athlete’s body; 2) improvement of technical skill, allowing the athlete’s movements to be extremely rationalized, which manifests itself in greater expediency, efficiency and economy of movements.

It is also noted that in sports characterized by a large variability of actions, during the training process it is necessary to bring the conditions in which technical techniques are improved closer to the constantly changing conditions of fights and game actions. At the same time, it is important to individualize the technique for highly qualified athletes, but nevertheless, the basis of each technique must be common.

There are three stages of technical training:

1st stage coincides with the first half of the preparatory period. In technical training this is the stage "construction" models of new technology, improving prerequisites, learning individual movements, forming their general coordination basis. In the literature, this stage is called “search” (V.M. Dyakov, 1967, etc.).

Stage 2 - “stabilization”. At this stage, technical training is aimed at in-depth development and consolidation of holistic skills of competitive actions as components of sports form. It covers the second half of the preparatory period.

Stage 3 - “adaptation”. At this stage, technical training is built within the framework of immediate pre-competition training and is aimed at improving acquired skills, increasing the range of their appropriate variability and the degree of “reliability” in relation to competition conditions. This stage covers the competitive period.

If it is necessary to rebuild firmly acquired skills with entrenched technical errors or shortcomings, it is necessary to lengthen the first stage, first introducing a “readaptation” stage, when these skills are not used in action, which contributes to the “fading away” of unwanted conditioned reflex connections under the influence of time (K.T. Bun, 1973). The formation of motor skills requires a solid mastery of the basic structure of the technique and its variants based on the development of leading motor qualities.

Speaking about teaching methods in sports, I. G. Ozolin (1975) believes that it is necessary to facilitate the first steps only to the extent that it does not create in those involved underestimated ideas about their capabilities, so that what has been achieved does not seem to them the limit. Facilitating learning is necessary to create a correct understanding of the movement, as well as to develop the ability to perform it in a simplified form. A major role in the simultaneous teaching of movement techniques and the manifestation of physical and mental qualities at a high level is played by methods of pedagogical stimulation, interest, the game method and the competitive one. You should not wait for complete mastery of the technique; it is necessary, if possible, to compete in its elements. The author advises caution in the use of simulators that facilitate the training of sports techniques, since this can negatively affect the conscious coordination of movements and the manifestation of physical and mental qualities.

D. D. Donskoy (1957) and other authors are of the opinion that special attention should be paid to initial training, since deficiencies in the first stages of technical training are extremely difficult to correct even when a high level of perfection is achieved.

The long-term process of technical training of an athlete is usually divided into two stages - “basic” technical training and in-depth technical improvement (L.P. Matveev, 1977, etc.).

M. M. Bogen (1981) distinguishes four levels of assimilation of educational material: 1) formation of knowledge about the object (motor skills are not formed); 2) the ability to solve a separate motor task; 3) the ability to find more advanced options for motor action; 4) the ability to construct new ways to solve motor problems.

Yu. V. Verkhoshansky (1972) is of the opinion that the study of human movements in terms of the formation and improvement of sports technique expands our capabilities in actively managing this process and provides the basis for an objective solution to the issue of selecting means and methods of training. In general, both contribute to the implementation of the principle of optimal management of long-term training of athletes.

According to A.V. Vorobyov (1972), modern training methods and exercise techniques are in the closest relationship and interdependence. Evolution in exercise technique leads to changes in training methods and vice versa.

The main means of technical training (L.P. Matveev, 1977, etc.) are considered to be preparatory exercises that have structural similarities with competitive actions, training forms of competitive exercises and the competitive exercises themselves with all their inherent features, and general preparatory exercises as additional ones.

V. I. Shaposhnikova, V. F. Dorofeev, R. V. Miroshnikova, E. S. Ulrich (1967) believe that the right skills must be instilled from the very beginning and especially carefully select and apply special and simulation exercises that play a significant role role in the formation of technology. If a fairly wide range of means is used to improve the general physical fitness of adolescents, then all special exercises should not be used when teaching the technique of a particular sport. External similarity in the form of movements does not always correspond to the main content of the technique being studied, therefore, simulation exercises used in artificial conditions should be approached with extreme caution. During initial training, the method of disaggregated training should be widely used; it is advisable to study several technical techniques in parallel in one lesson, because in this case the coordination capabilities of students expand, mastery of motor skills occurs in a shorter time, and the possibility of their tactical use increases.

Beginners should be taught elementary, simplified techniques within their capabilities. But at the same time, it is important that the elementary technique does not distort its motor fundamentals, which will allow you to gradually move on to a complex, perfect technique for performing exercises without retraining. Training should be carried out according to the following scheme: first, the athlete creates motor ideas, then attempts to actually perform it follow, then, as the subject is repeated, a skill is acquired, which later turns into a motor skill. Improvement of technique is carried out by changing the form of movements and increasing the level of development of motor and volitional qualities (N. G. Ozolin, 1970).

According to L.P. Matveev and A.D. Novikov (1976) and other authors, the details of the technique in most cases depend on the individual morphological and functional characteristics of athletes. Therefore, blindly copying the individual techniques of outstanding athletes can negatively affect sports results. The technique of high-class athletes is highly stable and at the same time flexible adaptability to changing environmental conditions.

A. G. Drizhika (1967) in his research came to the conclusion that the less information about movement is perceived by analyzers, the less it is realized, the more stable and faster skills can be formed, but less perfect and “inert.” This is consistent with the judgments of I.P. Pavlov that “any system of conditioned reflex connections is established faster and easier with less variability in external influences” (I.P. Pavlov, 1947). Based on what has been said, we can conclude that each training session should repeat the completed stage of the formation of this motor skill each time in order to avoid the development of “inertia”. The sequence of tasks for such training sessions should be something like this:

1. Expanding the motor horizons of those engaged within the boundaries of a given coordination of movements: a) performing imitation and leading exercises that help improve the technique of the event; b) performing exercises that directly improve the technique of the chosen type.

2. Expansion of the functional capabilities of those engaged within the boundaries of this coordination of movements.

3. Modeling of optimal and maximum functionality within the boundaries of the selected type.

At an early age, you need to worry less about firmly consolidating skills, and more about expanding the motor horizons of students by mastering a large number of movements that are very diverse in coordination structure at different tempos and with different speed-strength characteristics. Frequent repetition of narrowly limited standardized forms of movements should be avoided in order to increase the plasticity of the nervous system.

V. S. Keller (1967) is of the opinion that the development of a dynamic stereotype in martial arts, in the form of a stable integral system of a sports fight, is a very difficult task and, most importantly, impractical. Motor skills should be developed not for the entire system of a sports match, but for individual, basic techniques used in complex acts of athletes. A complete system of actions of martial artists is built from the skills of basic techniques each time in accordance with the created situation of the competition. When teaching techniques, the coach must consistently give tasks to perform them in a variety of tactical situations, gradually turning the techniques into simple and then complex combat actions of a sports match.

The author proposes to call specialized positions and movements of athletes in martial arts, taken outside of a tactical situation, “techniques,” and a technique or several techniques used to solve a specific tactical problem, “action.”

initial actions (fighting stances);

movement (methods of movement of athletes);

basic movements (strikes, defenses, coups, etc.).

Classifies the actions of athletes, based on the general tactical task, as actions of preparation, attack, defense. This distinction between the concepts of technique and action facilitates the teaching of technique and tactics.

The author recommends teaching and improving technique in combat sports, taking into account the specific conditions of the athletes’ activity, namely, combat with an opposing opponent. Based on this, he offers specific ways to study skills and develop the ability to apply these skills in a sports match:

training without an opponent,

with a conditional opponent,

with a partner,

with the enemy.

Training without an opponent used to master the basics of technique, improve it, to teach conscious analysis of one’s own movements, and the ability to control technique.

Training with a mock opponent(stuffed animal in wrestling, target in fencing, punching bag in boxing, etc.) - to develop the athlete’s ability to determine the distance to the opponent, assimilate muscle sensations, and practice technical techniques. When training with a conditional opponent, two new points appear:

a) the action of a visual analyzer, which helps to correctly determine the distance to the enemy;

b) muscle sensations associated with contact with the enemy. The demand for precision of movements and coordination increases.

Third way - training with a partner used to study and consolidate techniques and actions. Develops the ability to take meaningful, expedient actions, helps to understand the interdependence of one’s actions on the actions of a partner and is predominantly technical and tactical in nature.

Training with the enemy used to improve techniques and actions, taking into account the individual characteristics of athletes, detailed development of techniques, improvement of moral and volitional qualities, developing the ability to use one’s abilities in a variety of conditions of a sports match and transforming techniques into expedient combat actions.

With the use of technical means, opportunities are created to better determine the qualitative aspects of the movement being performed based on the artificial expansion of the athlete’s ability to evaluate controlled characteristics (I. P. Ratov, 1972).

According to V.K. Balsevich (1975), the use of technical means facilitates the task of conducting mass training in movements, subject to even greater individualization of pedagogical influences on each student. With the use of technical means, the possibility of individualized pedagogical corrections and setting specific tasks for each student is greatly facilitated.

When mastering a technique in martial arts, it is necessary to strictly adhere to the following principle: each “technical so” must have its own “tactical why”. This means that when studying a technique, when individualizing it, it is necessary to proceed not only from the purely biomechanical expediency of the technique, but also to take into account its future tactical features, capabilities, and variability in the use of the technique in a particular combat action (N. A. Bernshtein, 1965 ).

In the process of teaching sports technique, various authors identify phases that can be considered relatively in isolation: V. S. Farfel (1960) notes the physiological phases: irradiation of the excitation process; concentration of excitation due to the development of the inhibition process; stabilization and automation; L. B. Chkhaidze, N. A. Bernstein (1947) distinguish regulatory phases: neutralization of reactive forces that interfere with compliance with the necessary spatial parameters of movements; release of a number of degrees of freedom, the reactive forces of which least interfere with movements; complete release of the required degrees of freedom.

V.D. Maznichenko (1964) notes five stages in the formation of a motor skill: 1) obtaining the first idea of a motor action and forming an attitude towards learning it; 2) the initial ability to perform the movement in a “rough” form; 3) the initial ability to perfectly perform a motor action; 4) complete skill education; 5) achieving a changeable skill.

K. Meinel (1960) distinguishes three stages of learning: mastering the process in a rough form; the appearance of fine coordination of movements; securing and adapting to changing conditions, stabilizing movement.

M. Ya. Gorkin (1953), D. Harre (1971) give methodological recommendations for teaching physical exercise techniques: it is necessary to immediately teach rational technique; Great attention should be paid to theoretical studies with athletes in order to ensure a conscious attitude towards learning movements; it is necessary to create a high level of special physical qualities in order to eliminate technical errors arising from insufficient physical prerequisites, to provide such conditions for performing the exercise that it is easy to determine any deviations from the parameters of an appropriate solution to the motor task.

In the structure of teaching techniques and actions in martial arts, K. T. Bulochko (1972) distinguishes three phases: 1st phase includes familiarization and unlearning; 2nd - consolidation and improvement of technology; 3rd - use in competition conditions. According to each phase, the author considers tasks, means and methods.

When studying classical wrestling techniques, O.P. Khromov (1963) offers two schemes: for teaching simple techniques and complex ones, which differ in that when teaching complex techniques, in addition to a holistic method, a dismembered one is also used. In this case, exercises are used in both schemes: 1st with a partner who does not resist or provides incomplete resistance; 2nd - with a partner who creates favorable conditions for the reception.

A variety of motor actions are formed during a person’s life under the influence of various factors. Optimization of this process is achieved in conditions of rationally structured training. Schematically, this can be represented as a consistent transition from knowledge and ideas about an action to the ability to perform it, and then from ability to skill. In any action, three parts (combined functional components) can be distinguished: indicative, actually executive and control (M. Ya. Galperin, 1954, etc.), which are actually inseparable from each other, simultaneously represented in the process of its implementation.

The physiological construct that unites them is what in modern physiology is commonly called the “functional system” of a behavioral act (P.K. Anokhin, 1948, 1975). This means, as is known, an integral set of functional mechanisms and processes, which develops during and as a result of the construction of action with the leading role of the higher parts of the central nervous system and ensures the consolidation of the functions of all body systems involved in its implementation (including physiological mechanisms of action programming, efferent and afferent connections in movement control, comparison of action parameters with a given program, identification of discrepancies and action correction) (Ya. M. Kots, 1982).

The meaningful construction of an action begins with the directed formation of its indicative part as the indicative basis of action (IBA), which plays the role of its program. The OOD includes a general logical project of an action, based on the essence of the problem being solved, and the main reference points (GRP) of the program for its implementation, i.e., more or less clearly defined ideas about the main points of the action, the operations included in it and the conditions for its implementation.

As a result of the formation of a motor action, the initial motor skill arises. It represents one of the typical forms of realization of human motor capabilities, which is expressed in the ability to carry out motor action on the basis of non-automated purposeful operations. The hallmarks of initial motor skills include:

constant concentration of attention in the process of action on its constituent private operations;

relative non-standardization of the parameters and result of the action when it is reproduced, excessive variability in movement technique, especially under the influence of confusing factors;

dismemberment or poorly expressed unity of operations, resulting in excessive prolongation of actions over time.

Motor skill and motor skill are like successive steps on the path to the formation of motor action. As an action is repeatedly reproduced, the operations included in its composition gradually become streamlined and familiar, and the connections between them become strong, guaranteeing the natural unity of movements, the need to constantly concentrate attention on a number of particular moments of the action that require directed awareness increases, the contribution of motor automatisms to actions taken. As a result, the motor skill is automated - it turns into a motor skill. Automation of movements is the main distinguishing feature of a motor skill.

It follows that a motor skill is a form of realization of motor capabilities that arises on the basis of automation of a motor skill. A rationally formed motor skill is characterized by an optimal ratio of the functions of consciousness and automatism in movement control, in which the action as a whole is directed by consciousness, and the component operations are brought to a certain degree of automation.

Along with the automation of movements, a kind of stereotyping occurs along with them according to a number of important parameters and qualitative characteristics. This is expressed, in particular, in the relatively standard reproduction of spatial, temporal, dynamic and rhythmic parameters of the movement technique when repeating the action under the same conditions, as well as in maintaining the given overall effectiveness of the action when performing it under changing conditions.

According to M. M. Bogen (1985, 1995), learning motor actions, which in this aspect can be considered as a condition for survival, appears in its simplest forms with the emergence of life, becoming more complex and improved with the evolution of living beings.

A person begins to learn motor actions from the moment of birth, repeating the phylogenetic path of learning in ontogenesis: at first, movements are organized spontaneously and chaotically, then more and more meaningfully, purposefully, under external influence, first by parents, and later by other people, and that’s all more - society. Society is interested in effective learning, since the well-being of society is determined by the well-being of its members, and the latter is determined by the ability to solve life problems, and ultimately by training. This determines society’s requirement for the education system: teach everyone, teach effectively, teach quickly.

The higher the level of development of a society, the higher its requirements for the quality of education, the more valued the teacher’s qualifications. With a good teacher, students learn the material faster and more effectively; he can teach less gifted students.

The effectiveness of training is assessed by the results of practical activities. Stable efficiency is often achieved in activities with a standard program. In activities with an unstable program and changing conditions, such as sports games and martial arts, where success depends on the ability to act in rapidly changing situations, stable effectiveness of learning outcomes is much less common, moreover, extremely rare, rather as an exception to the general rule. To find out the teaching methodology, the masters carefully analyze the movements: using advanced instruments, they record the movements and their characteristics, and then use the analysis data to teach others. The idea of training is simple: to achieve similarity, or even better, complete compliance with the movements of the master in all recorded characteristics. To achieve the goal, it is recommended to use training devices that allow you to quickly compare model and real characteristics of movements and make appropriate corrections to the student’s movements (Zinchenko T.N. et al. 1978; Krogius N.V., 1981). The student achieves the desired effect: he learns to more or less accurately reproduce the reference movement. However, “repeat” does not mean “master.” Copying does not create mastery.

N.A. Bernstein (1947) noted: movements are corrections. Mastery is manifested in the accuracy and timeliness of corrections that ensure the adaptation of the action to fluctuations in its external situation, on the one hand, and to fluctuations in one’s own internal structure (the relative position of body parts, the ratio of efforts in magnitude and direction) on the other. You can, if you wish, copy a motor action, or more precisely, its observed picture: it is impossible to copy corrections - they are inaccessible to the observer and are meaningless as an object of copying due to their purely private nature. An explanation of corrections as a phenomenon of motor activity is generally impossible from the standpoint of the theory of the conditioned reflex concept of the nature of motor acts; it is possible only if we recognize the meaning of activity and the purpose of action as the main regulators of action, and orientation in the situation and in the process of constructing an action is mandatory, although and unnoticed, part of the action.

Having shown the role of the “image of the required future” (in other words, the role of the goal) in the formation of a motor action, N.A. Bernstein outlined the direction of in-depth study of the psychological structure - leading in relation to its physiological structure. Continuing the development of this concept, P. Ya. Galperin (1954) deciphers the psychological mechanisms of action formation, generally calling them the “indicative basis of action.” The formation of OOD always precedes execution and includes quite a lot of relatively complex operations, which allows us to talk about orienting activity as a necessary component in the construction of a motor action. This activity begins with understanding the meaning, that is, understanding why the result of the action is needed. Thus, formulating the requirements of a motor task, choosing an action, analyzing the situation, determining the composition of operations are the necessary actions (operations) of indicative activity (actions).

Each action and all operations included in it require precise control of the body for its implementation. Therefore, orientation activity includes the design of appropriate efforts, trajectories, duration and rhythm of movements that coordinate the movements of the body and its parts with the requirements of the activity situation.

Particular attention should be paid to the problem of identifying essential guidelines in a situation of action (when we are talking about orientation in a situation of action) and guidelines for regulating action (when we are talking about constructing the action itself). The ability to navigate the situation of action and the sensations of the dynamics of one’s own body are decisive conditions for the successful solution of motor tasks. Special studies have found that in orientation activities, not all elements of the situation are analyzed, but only its significant signs (Bernstein N.A., 1947; Bogen M.M., 1985).

The context of the meaning of a motor action makes it possible to identify, under the conditions of a motor task, the essential features of the action situation. For each type of motor task, these essential features are invariant: although specific situations differ in detail, they can be distinguished in theoretical analysis. It is they who determine the essence of the situation and the choice of the composition of operations that ensure the success of the action. The same can be said about the regulation of motor action and the requirements for its construction. Theoretical analysis allows us to identify the main conditions for optimizing an action (technical requirements), and methodological analysis allows us to identify the minimum conditions, the fulfillment of which ensures the optimal structure and characteristics of actions. These essential landmarks are called “main reference points” (Bashlykov Yu. I., 1973; Bernshtein N. A., 1947; Krogius N. V., 1981), since they are controlled consciously, the subject relies on these points of concentration of attention , building and regulating action. The organization of action around these points occurs unconsciously, which corresponds to the instructions of N.A. Bernstein about the inappropriateness of the intervention of consciousness in the work of the lower levels of movement construction (Bashlykov Yu. I., 1973).

It can be assumed that the formation of a motor skill occurs in two stages. At the first stage, when basic skills and a school of movements in a chosen type of activity are being laid, special attention should be paid to the formation of orientation skills in the internal orientation field, in other words, to the ability to control the strength, speed, and direction of one’s own movements. At the second stage, when the student begins to solve more complex motor tasks that require coordination of movements with the changing conditions of the action situation, attention is transferred to the formation of skills of orienting activity in the external orienting field, in other words - to the ability to widely and adequately vary actions, to achieve effective solution of motor problems in any conditions.

According to V.N. Seluyanov, M.P. Shestakov (1996), N.A. Bernstein (1947) should certainly be considered the founder of the theory of technical training in sports (TTP). It was he who made the biomechanics of human movements, the physiology of motor activity, which included neurophysiology and psychology, the methodological basis of TTP.

In the essay “On the Construction of Movements,” Bernstein (1947) considers the motor system of vertebrates as a model (system) consisting of a passive part (rigid joints) and an active part (striated muscles with all its equipment). Then he gives a description of the properties of elements (bones, ligaments, tendons, muscles), structural formations - joints, musculoskeletal models, etc.

Thus, N.A. Bernstein was one of the first biomechanists who laid the structure of the musculoskeletal system as the cornerstone of theoretical biomechanics, and used its properties to explain the reasons for a certain organization of motor action.

The modern idea of the analysis of movements (techniques) is associated with the concept of “biomechanism” (Seluyanov, 1993). Modeling the human musculoskeletal system (MSA) requires the use of the following ideal models of theoretical mechanics: two- or three-dimensional space, time, a material point, an absolutely rigid body (rod), a hinge, a kinematic chain, an ideal liquid or gas, etc. All of them are used in biomechanics, however, to obtain an adequate model of the musculoskeletal system, it is necessary to have muscle models. Consequently, the object of biomechanics intersects with the object of theoretical mechanics, but not completely. At each moment of time, human existence in the external environment will be represented as a set of biomechanisms.

To build a movement (technique) means, according to Seluyanov (1993):

1) formulate the goal of the movement;

2) set the initial conditions, i.e. pose and kinetic parameters;

3) determine biomechanisms, i.e., methods of converting muscle energy into expedient motor activity;

4) distribute the implementation of biomechanisms over time;

5) implement the theoretical development of motor action, but from this moment the biomechanist must give way to a specialist in teaching a person motor actions.

The theory of technical training borders on the biomechanics of human movements, the physiology of motor activity by N. A. Bernstein (1966), pedagogy and psychology.

Based on the model of the musculoskeletal system, N.A. Bernstein (1947, 1966) theoretically developed methods for controlling the model. He suggested that a person can only control internal forces, and reactive and external forces cannot be unambiguously correlated with them. There is fundamental uncertainty here. The principle of sensory corrections is, of course, true in the case of training, the formation of a skill, however, in the presence of a skill, with automated control, the logic of sensory corrections does not work (Bogen M. M., 1985). It is obvious that within the limits of sensory information entering the central nervous system (0.120-0.280 s), a large number of sports motor actions (jumping, pushing off, etc.) are performed contrary to logic. A person learns and ultimately develops muscle control programs taking into account external and reactive forces, i.e. the musculoskeletal system is a fundamentally controlled system when two control methods are combined - automated and with sensory correction.

Physiological concepts of movement control did not set themselves the task of substantiating the laws of learning motor actions.

In psychology, thanks to the works of L. S. Vygotsky (1956) and A. N. Leontiev (1975), it became possible to study the learning process as an activity. The structural (temporary) components of activity are actions. An action is a process subordinated to solving a specific problem, aimed at achieving a goal determined by the nature of motivation. From the position of activity theory, P. Ya. Galperin (1954) and his colleagues developed a theory of step-by-step control of the process of knowledge acquisition. Activity theory formed the basis of the theory of learning motor actions in sports.

The opinions of most modern theorists agree on the assumption that the basic coordination properties of the brain are determined by the topological structure of the network of neurons and the dynamics of the propagation of impulses in this network. It can be argued that the neural theory of memory is currently generally accepted.

The assumptions made by Hebb (1984), which have now become classic, suggest that any mental function, be it memory, emotion or thinking, must be determined by the activity of neural ensembles. Nerve cells in such ensembles are united into specific networks. Thus, the object of TTP are programs (images) of theoretical concepts and motor implementations of purposeful motor actions in the cerebral cortex. The presence and quantitative assessment of their perfection are revealed during motor activity. The subject of TTP is the patterns of formation of motor skills.

In accordance with the object and subject of the study, as well as with the logic of development of theoretical research, the following main tasks of TTP development can be determined:

speculative and mathematical models of the musculoskeletal system and central nervous system;

methods for forming arbitrary programs of motor actions;

methods for restructuring programs for arbitrary control of ODA models;

methods for monitoring the level of technical readiness, as well as the content of technical training;

planning technical training.

Programs that simulate brain activity are not yet available to the trainer, so he must use speculative models. Such a model could be the block diagram previously published by Golomazov (1994). The construction of a motor action leads to the formation in the mind of a motor image and a movement program that can be implemented. When implementing a program, as a rule, there is a deviation from the given goal of movement (image). Therefore, it is necessary to repeat the execution of the program with some preliminary corrections. Those traces in the neural chain of impulses that are repeated over and over again are fixed in the form of clear spiny formations. The most appropriate actions from the point of view of the athlete and his coach are gradually consolidated. This helps to gradually increase the execution accuracy and stability of the environment. This approach is called the iterative method, which leads to the formation of a basic program.

N.A. Bernstein’s ideas about the circular nature of action control, about a person’s anticipation of the required future turned out to be fundamental in the theory of goals as a conscious image of the anticipated result. Thus, one of the highest integral functions of the human psyche - goal setting - was placed in the position “from the person”, and thus the functions of realization and formation of individuality were placed in the same position (Dmitriev S.V., 1985).

The works of D. D. Donskoy (1968), S. V. Dmitriev (1985) formulated the basic principles and means of semantic design and modeling of human motor actions. Considering the motor actions of an athlete as an object of didactic modeling, S. V. Dmitriev (1995) pays special attention to the category of goal setting in its Bernsteinian sense. At the same time, the essential connection between the subject and his activities (actions) is revealed, according to the author, when the leading category in the analysis is the category of the subject.

The main idea of the essentially acmeological principle of feasibility is that each person has a certain physical, mental and spiritual potential and the heights of his achievements corresponding to this potential are predictable and projectable (Gagin Yu. A., 1994).

According to L.P. Matveev (1977), those forms of movements that were mastered by an athlete at the beginning of his sports career cannot completely coincide with the models of technique suitable for subsequent stages, because the technique of movements is determined by the degree of development of the athlete’s physical and mental qualities. In accordance with the changes, individual technique must also change. This means that the technical training of an athlete does not have a final path; it is carried out throughout the entire sporting activity.

The effectiveness of managing the process of developing and improving the technical skills of highly qualified athletes critically depends on the development of a system for monitoring its condition. Moreover, immediate information about the current state of the formed technical structure of the exercise acquires initial importance. Traditional methods of verbal and visual teaching are supplemented with new ones every year. In most cases, they are associated with the use of specialized hardware devices for the formation of visual representations, programming movement parameters, urgent objective information during execution and correction of errors or physical facilitation of the correct execution of actions. When choosing means of urgent information, preference is given to methods associated with visual perception, since switching signaling from the proprioceptive channel to the visual contributes to the formation of an objective system of self-control based on conscious ideas about the form and results of one’s technical actions (D. D. Donskoy, 1971; V. M. Dyachkov, 1963, I. P. Ratov, 1972; V. S. Rodichenko, 1972; V. S. Farfel, 1968; L. L. Chkhaidze, 1968; L. P. Matveev, 1977, etc. ).

From the experience of working as a water floor teacher trainer

Pisareva Anna Viktorovna, water polo coach and teacher at MBUDO SDYUSSHOR No. 3 in Volgodonsk
Description:
This work is from the field of physical culture and sports. It is aimed at a narrow circle of people whose profession is related to water, and it will be useful and interesting for swimming and water polo coaches.
Object of study: female athletes – water polo players starting from the UT-1 group.
Subject of study: psychological preparation as one of the important preparations in sports.
Psychological preparation, like other aspects of an athlete, is used in the physical education system in sports schools, Olympic reserve schools, universities, and national teams. Therefore, it is important for a coach to thoroughly monitor the psychological preparation of his players.
Introduction.
The general goal of training athletes is to achieve the highest (record) results at the main competitions, for high-class athletes these are the Olympic Games. Today, coaches, scientists, and doctors all over the world are searching for all sorts of ways to improve athletic performance. My publication will touch upon the main component of success - the influence of the central nervous system (CNS) on the athlete’s preparedness, the ability to implement all that physical, long-term work, using some patterns of nervous system activity. In sports activities, an athlete constantly has to deal with stressful situations, such as training and in competitions. The higher the rank of the competition, the higher the tasks set at these competitions, the stronger and more aggravated the stressful situation. An important role is played by the climate in the team, which allows optimal mobilization for performance under competition conditions. In water polo, one of the main tasks of any coach is to create like-minded people, in which everyone together solves one problem - to win. This will avoid wasting nervous energy, which is so necessary when an athlete fights with his rivals. If we consider the competition according to the degree of responsibility, the following chain is built:
1.Olympic Games;
2.World Championship;
3.European Championship;
4.World and European Cups;
5. Russian Championship;
6.Russian Championship;
7.International meetings;
8.Zonal competitions;
9.Championships and Regional Championships;
10.Championships and City Championships;
11. Control starts inside the school.
But the most important determining factor in this will be the meeting with an equal or stronger opponent. The higher the rank of the competition, the earlier the athlete subconsciously begins to prepare for it. Creating excessively warm conditions for preparing for competitions does not always give a positive result, since some everyday worries allow you to switch to other activities. Thinking about the same thing for weeks and months exhausts the nervous system. And here the main thing is the coach’s ability to switch the athlete from one type of activity to another. The coach must be able to distract the athlete, using his knowledge and the cohesion of the team. Devastation before competitions indicates an incorrect structure of the preparation stages and excessive psychophysical stress.
Psychophysical training.
In the professional literature, much attention is paid to the development of an athlete’s physical condition (strength, endurance, speed, flexibility, etc.), but for some reason very little attention is paid to the state of the central nervous system during this activity. When performing physical work, the central nervous system is loaded, when restoring strength, the central nervous system is loaded, after which the central nervous system is restored, that is, to restore the nervous system after physical work, it takes at least one and a half times longer than to restore a certain resource.
In the activity of the central nervous system, well-known parameters are distinguished:
- excitability /V/ - conductivity /P/ - stability /U/ - lability (switchability) /L/ - inhibition (exorbitant exhaustion of the nervous system) /T/. Everyone knows that the manifestation of absolute strength depends on two parameters - on the anatomical diameter muscles or, more simply, muscle mass; - from the magnitude of the impulse to the muscle from the brain, i.e. current strength is actually excitability. Overexcitation is dangerous, as it tires the nervous system and leads to extreme inhibition.
When training water polo players, it is necessary to take into account the following: working at speeds of PANO and below trains conductivity in the central nervous system, and with very long work - stability. If there is a change in the same work, then prepare for lability. Moreover, such switchings will allow you to do a much larger volume of work and at the same time the central nervous system will become tired an order of magnitude less. Thus, work with switches has an advantage over monotonous work and is much more effective in terms of developing general endurance. Training programs for developing maximum speed activates the excitability of nervous processes, but this in turn does not allow developing the strength of maximum contractions, because maximum excitability is possible only with single movements. A threshold or plateau of maximum speed occurs in athletes due to the absence of a series of single speed-strength exercises in training programs. In order to increase speed, it is first necessary to prepare for single maximal contractions and only after that can you move on to tempo strength programs. It is necessary to take into account the patterns of activity of the central nervous system; the longer the load, the less excitability. Training work with high intensity trains the resistance of the central nervous system to maximum cyclic excitability, which is necessary for sprinters. But you need to take into account that with such work, braking occurs very quickly, often beyond the limits. Recovery from such work occurs much faster if you perform conductivity work with a low degree of excitability or switching. In order to better understand which means of preparation influences which side of the central nervous system to what extent, the following table is given.

Sports preparation (training) is the appropriate use of knowledge, means, methods and conditions, which allows for a targeted influence on the development of an athlete and ensures the necessary degree of his readiness for sports achievements.

Currently, sport is developing in two directions with different target orientations - mass sport and elite sport. Their goals and objectives differ from each other, but there is no clear boundary between them due to the natural transition of some trainees from mass sports to “big” sports and back.

The goal of sports training in the field of mass sports is to improve health, improve physical condition and active recreation.

The goal of training in the field of elite sports is to achieve the highest possible results in competitive activities.

However, as for the means, methods, and principles of sports preparation (training), they are similar both in mass sports and in elite sports. The structure of training for athletes training and functioning in the field of mass sports and elite sports is also fundamentally common.

The structure of an athlete's preparedness includes technical, physical, tactical and mental elements.

Technical preparedness should be understood as the degree to which an athlete has mastered the technique of the movement system of a particular sport. It is closely related to the physical, mental and tactical capabilities of the athlete, as well as environmental conditions. Changes in competition rules and the use of other sports equipment significantly affect the content of athletes’ technical preparedness.

The structure of technical readiness always contains so-called basic and additional movements.

The basic ones include movements and actions that form the basis of the technical equipment of this sport. Mastering basic movements is mandatory for an athlete specializing in this sport.

Additional ones include secondary movements and actions, elements of individual movements that do not violate his rationality and at the same time are characteristic of the individual characteristics of a given athlete.

Physical fitness is the capabilities of the body's functional systems. It reflects the required level of development of those physical qualities on which competitive success in a particular sport depends.

The tactical preparedness of an athlete depends on how well he masters the means of sports tactics (for example, the technical techniques necessary to implement the chosen tactics), its types (offensive, defensive, counterattacking) and forms (individual, group, team).

Tactical tasks can be of a long-term nature (for example, participation in a series of competitions, where one of them is the main one of the season) and local, i.e. associated with participation in a separate competition, a specific fight, fight, race, swim, game. When developing a tactical plan, not only your own technical and tactical capabilities are taken into account, but also the capabilities of your teammates and opponents.

Selected options for tactical actions in some cases can be practiced specifically during training sessions. The specificity of a sport is a decisive factor that determines the structure of an athlete’s tactical preparedness. Thus, when running at medium distances (800, 1500 m), a runner with a higher level of sprinting qualities will strive to slow down the entire distance in order to achieve victory with a short (100-150 m) quick finishing spurt. A runner with a higher level of endurance, on the contrary, will run at a high, even pace throughout the entire distance and win the race thanks to a long (sometimes a third of the distance) finishing spurt. Among equal runners, the winner will be the one who can impose his tactics to overcome the distance on his opponents.

The situation is more complicated with tactical training in games and martial arts. The complexity of an athlete’s tactical actions here is determined not only by technical, functional readiness, the number of tactical actions worked out in advance, but also by the speed of decision-making and their implementation with frequent changes in competitive situations. The ability to make quick and effective decisions in conditions of lack of time, limited space, and insufficient information due to the fact that the opponent disguises his possible actions distinguishes a master from a beginner.

The effectiveness of tactical preparedness in competition between equal opponents in many sports is determined by the athlete’s ability to anticipate the competitive situation before it unfolds. The ability to do this develops during training sessions, as well as with constant analysis of competitive experience.

The activity of tactical actions during competitions is an important indicator of sportsmanship. A highly qualified athlete must be able to impose his will on his opponent during competition.

Mental preparedness. its structure is heterogeneous. It is possible to distinguish two relatively independent and at the same time interconnected sides: volitional and special mental preparedness. physical training athlete

Volitional preparedness is associated with such qualities as determination (a clear vision of a long-term goal), determination and courage (an inclination to take reasonable risks combined with thoughtful decisions), perseverance and perseverance (the ability to mobilize functional reserves, activity in achieving a goal), endurance and self-control ( the ability to control one’s thoughts and actions in conditions of emotional arousal), independence and initiative. Some of these qualities may initially be inherent in one or another athlete, but most of them are cultivated and improved in the process of regular educational work and sports competitions.

The specificity of some sports leaves an imprint on the nature and degree of development of individual mental qualities in athletes. However, certain methodological techniques are also used to cultivate strong-willed preparedness. In practice, the following requirements serve as the basis for the method of volitional training.

1. Regularly and necessarily follow the training program and competitive guidelines.

This requirement is associated with the development of sports diligence, the habit of systematic effort and perseverance in overcoming difficulties, with a clear understanding of the impossibility of achieving sports peaks without the appropriate mobilization of spiritual and physical strength. On this basis, the education of purposefulness, perseverance and perseverance in achieving goals, self-discipline and perseverance is realized.

2. Systematically introduce additional difficulties.

This means constantly including additional complicated motor tasks, conducting training sessions in complicated conditions, increasing the degree of risk, introducing confusing sensory-emotional factors, and complicating competitive programs.

3. Use competitions and the competitive method. The very spirit of competition in competitions increases the degree of mental tension of the athlete (Table 1), which means that additional demands are placed on him: to show activity, initiative, self-control, determination, perseverance and courage.

In the structure of an athlete’s special mental preparedness, it is necessary to highlight those aspects that can be improved during sports training:

* resistance to stressful situations of training and competitive activity;
* kinesthetic and visual perception of motor actions and the environment;
* ability for mental regulation of movements, ensuring effective muscle coordination;
* ability to perceive, organize and process information under time pressure;
* the ability to form advanced reactions and programs in the brain structures that precede real action.

Vocational applied physical training as a type of special physical training

Vocational applied physical training (PPPT) is a type of special physical training that has developed into an independent direction of physical education and is aimed at the psychophysical preparation of a person for professional work. The problems of PPPP are described in detail in Chapter. 10.

In this section, PPPP is mentioned so that the reader has a holistic understanding of the structure of special physical training, as well as the unity of theoretical and methodological approaches in sports and professionally applied physical training.

In sports, organization and discipline play perhaps the main role. Therefore, the process of sports training is a combination of many factors, which are a solid basis for the development of any athlete. Development, in sports terms, is the goal in itself of training athletes.

Sports training or training

Quite often the concepts of “sports training” and “sports training” are combined, making them synonymous. But in reality, everything is somewhat different. That is, the first concept is an integral part of the second.

Let's look at an example: if an athlete performs certain physical exercises, then this is training as a sports training center. And if an athlete hones his technical skills using video material, then training as such will not be carried out. But the athlete’s preparation will still continue.

Thus, it is worth noting that training is part of the training of athletes, but is not its main method.

Purpose of sports training

Like any purposeful activity, the training of an athlete has a specific goal, namely, obtaining the maximum level of physical, tactical, technical and psychological preparedness within a certain sport in order to achieve high results in competitions.

Objectives of sports training

To achieve the main goal of sports training, an athlete must complete a number of tasks:

high level of theoretical and practical competencies within a particular sport;
a high level of physiological preparation and stability of the main body systems that bear the main load in this sport;
achieving a high level of tactical and technical competence in the chosen sport;
development of psychological preparedness, at the level necessary for sports activities, in the chosen sport;
implementation of integral training, which includes complex interaction of the main types of athlete’s preparedness in competitive activity.

Facilities

Sports training is a process that is implemented by certain means. These means characterize this process as purposeful physical activity. These include different types of physical exercise. They are classified in relation to the necessary sports improvement, namely: aimed at preparing for competitions, at the general training of athletes and special preparatory ones.

Competitive exercises include conditions similar to those of sports competitions, and have fairly high demands on the athlete’s level of preparedness. This makes this type of exercise not as effective as special-preparatory exercises, since the second type takes into account the characteristics of a particular sport and is not aimed at achieving high results during training.

These exercises are distinguished by their variability and the ability to develop different aspects of physical fitness by using them in different ways. For example, for a track and field athlete, special preparatory exercises will simulate running as the main technical unit of the sport, but at the same time will be varied to more successfully achieve the goals of sports training. These will include: running with obstacles, with accelerations along distance segments, etc.

General preparatory exercises that help improve overall physical fitness also occupy their niche in sports training. While special exercises are aimed at developing those sports skills that are inherent in a given sport, general exercises contribute to the growth of desired results against the background of strengthening general sports training.

Sports training methods

Also, sports training is a combination and methodological distribution of methods. They, in turn, are grouped into three types:

The acquisition of knowledge.
Development of motor skills.
Development of general motor abilities.

The first group includes:

Oral: explanations, stories, conversations, descriptions.
Using printed resources: working with textbooks, manuals, cards.
Using visibility: direct visibility (when the demonstration occurs with the active participation of one of the subordinates), indirect visibility (video recordings, drawings, diagrams, etc.) and active methods (with explanations using the example of the participant himself).

The second group consists of two methods of working on physical exercises: divided and integral exercise.

The third group includes:

repetition method;
interval method;
circular repetition method;
a game;
method of variability;
uniformity method;
competition method.

Conditions for sports training

Like any other activity, sports training has a list of conditions necessary to successfully achieve the goal. These include:

appropriate natural conditions;
the simplest structures on the ground;
outdoor sports facilities;
indoor sports facilities;
sports centers and bases.

Stages of training athletes

According to generally accepted standards of sports training, its main stages are defined, which are aimed at long-term activity. Main stages:

primary or sports and recreational;
initial sports training;
educational and training;
improving sportsmanship;
stage of highest sportsmanship.

Types of sports training

Training an athlete is a complex pedagogical process that includes many factors that, as a whole, contribute to achieving the goal. Therefore, there are 6 types of sports training:

Theoretical preparation. The base or center for sports training consists of all the necessary theoretical knowledge and skills that are necessary for successful physical development within a particular sport.

Physical training. The process of developing the physical qualities and functional capabilities of the body, in order to realize the possibility of achieving high sports results.

Technical training. This type of training involves mastering certain technical skills of motor activity that are inherent in individual sports.
Tactical training. This is the process of mastering rational tactics for conducting effective competitive activities. At the same time, special technical techniques are an integral part of this training.
Psychological preparation. Sports activity is directly related to psychological pressure. Therefore, the training of an athlete should include the development of stress resistance, his moral and volitional qualities.
Integral training. Recently, another complex type of training for athletes began to be identified. This process is aimed at developing abilities for variable but holistic implementation of all of the above types of preparation for competitive activity.

It should also be noted that sports training is a purposeful pedagogical process that must be competently and methodically correctly organized in terms of alternating and combining all types.

Program

The sports training program is part and basis of a long process of preparation for competitive activity in any sport. It provides:

key concepts and components of all types of athlete training, taking into account the characteristics of a particular sport;
methodological, theoretical and practical for those guiding the process of training athletes;
features and nuances of control and monitoring the level of development of athletes.

Athlete Training Standards

All of the above parts, components and terms related to the specifics of individual sports are regulated at the state level. More precisely, these are federal standards of sports training, which are a set of minimum requirements for the level of sports readiness in both Olympic and non-Olympic sports. These requirements must be met by all organizations that provide sports training for athletes in accordance with the relevant laws of the Russian Federation.

Sports activity is the education of spirit and character, which must be properly organized and controlled.